CHAPTER ONE

OVERVIEW OF
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Objective:
 Distinguish the difference between data and information
 Define Technology
 Define communication
 Define the discipline computer science
 Define the term computer
 Identify the several characteristics of computer that made them useful and popular
 Application of Computers

1.1 Introduction to Information and Communication Technology

Data versus Information
Data:
 Simple facts and figures
 It is raw and unprocessed and therefore meaningless to us.
 Usually it is the result of experience, observation or experiment
 Numbers, characters, symbols, images etc., which can be processed by a
computer.
 Data must be interpreted, by a human or machine, to derive meaning
 Also called input
Information:
 is data that has been processed for use
 is a human interpretation of knowledge
 It is processed and selected so that it is useful and applicable
 has meaning in some context for its receiver
 After processing (such as formatting and printing), output data can again be
perceived as information.
 Also called output

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  When information is packaged or used for understanding or doing something, it is
known as knowledge. For example, there are a plenty of items listed on a Menu-
Card, in a hotel (data). You don't order everything, you just order the dish you
want to eat, (information).

Technology
 Is a way of solving problems by the application of knowledge from multiple
disciplines?
 Is new system or methods, tools that is a result of scientific knowledge
Information Technology
 is "the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of
computer based information systems, particularly software applications and
computer hardware."
 IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert,
store, protect, process, transmit, and securely retrieve information.
 The combination of computer and communication technologies
 a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce, manipulate,
store, communicate, and/or disseminate information
Communication
 Is process of exchanging information between two or more persons, devices
 Has at least three elements
 Sender
 Message
 receiver

1.2 Computer and Computer Science

1.2.1 What is Computer Science?
Computer Science
 Is a science concerned with information i.e. representation, storage, manipulation
or processing and presentation of information.

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  Like any other science, which uses some devices for the practical aspect,
computer science uses a special device called COMPUTER.
 Computer science has different fields of specialization or sub-disciplines like
other sciences. There are seven sub-disciplines of computer science. These are:
 Software engineering:
Soft ware engineering – It is concerned about the development of a better quality
software by applying scientific &basic engineering principles.
 Computer engineering (Architecture):
deals with studying, analyzing and designing of computer hardware (organization
and interconnection of computer system components) and its working principle.
 Automata theory:
Automata Theory Is The study of machines or devices which accept a certain
inputs such that the out put or at least the probabilities of output s are determined
by the input.
 Formal Language Theory:
Embraces the study of programs of programming languages, which is important
for the understanding, and construction of compilers.
 Complexity theory:
Concerned with the study and analysis of algorithms, which helps in measuring
the efficiency of the algorithms.
 Data base Architecture:
Involves the study and design of efficient methods for information storage,
process & retrieval.
 Artificial intelligence:
Is concerned with means by which Computers may perform tasks that would be
characterized as intelligent if performed by human beings.
1.2.2 What is Computer?
A computer
 Is an electronic device that accepts data, performs computations, and makes
logical decisions according to instructions that have been given to it; stores data

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 or information then produces meaningful information in a form that is useful to
humans?
 The name computer comes from a Latin word computator, meaning, “to
compute”

1.3 Characteristics of computers

The characteristics of a computer show the capability and the potential of the computer
for processing data. This saves time, space, money, labors etc. And they answer the
questions such as: Why computers are used? Why have they become so popular? Some of
the characteristics of the computer are as follows:
 Speed
 The ability of the computers to carry out their instructions in a very short period
of time is one of the main reasons for their popularity.
 Computers can perform tasks within a matter of seconds or minutes that would be
impossible for a person to complete by hand in lifetime.
 Its speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic
operation.
 And its speed measured in terms of micro second (10-6 - one millionths), nano

second (10-9 – one billionths), and Pico second (10-12 - one trillionths).
 Hence a computer with speed 1 microsecond can perform 1 million instructions in
just 1 second. (For example in one second this computer can perform the
following tasks:
o Calculate the grade point average for 3000 students
o Calculate the total value of all books used by students in a university
 Accuracy
 Now a day, computers are being used in life-and-death situations (For example,
jet pilots rely on computer computations for guidance, Hospitals rely on patient-
monitoring systems in critical – care units) which needs almost hundred percent
accuracy.

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  From this we can understand that computer is accurate and consistent. Unless
there is an error in the input data or unreliable program the computer processes its
task accurately.
 Capacity
 The ability of computers to store and process vast amounts of data continues to
grow.
 A computer operating at 200 MHz can move data from one location to another at
a rate excess of 1.2 billion characters (symbols) per second.
 Durability and reliability
 Computers are durable and extremely reliable devices.
 They can operate error-free over long periods of time.
 Diligence
 Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and
lack of concentration.
 If four million calculations have to be performed, then the computer will perform
the last four-millionth calculation with the same accuracy and speed as the first
calculation.
 Versatility
 Because of technological advancements in the computer industry, most computers
today are considered to be general-purpose computers, that is, both their
computation and input/output processing capabilities are used for almost any type
of application.
 For example, the same computer that is used to handle engineering company’s
mathematics and design computations can also be efficiently used by the
company to track inventory, process payroll, project earnings, and fulfill all its
reporting needs.
 Today’s computers are versatile in what they can do; computers and their
components are used in applications never before envisioned.
 For example; in home appliances (washing machines, ovens) home entertainment
centers, traffic lights, automobiles, banking, assembly plants, space probes, art,
music, education, hospitals, and agriculture, to name few.

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  The versatility of the computers and its use in a wide array of application are
limited only by the imagination of the human mind.
Note: Even if the above main characteristics of computers are increasing with time, the
cost and size of computers are decreasing.

1.4 Types of computers

 computers can be classified according to
1. Data handling (processing)
2. Purpose, and
3. Functionality (Physical size, performance).

1. Classification According to Type of Data handling (processing)

Techniques
Different types of computers process the data in a different manner. According to the
basic data handling principles, computers can be classified into three categories: analog,
digital, and hybrid.
1.1. Analog Computers
 Analog computers operate by measuring.
 They deal with continuous variables; they don’t compute directly with the
numbers rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure,
temperature, voltage, current etc.
 Analog computers are used for scientific and engineering purposes. One of the
characteristics of these computers is that they give approximate results since they
deal with quantities that vary continuously.
 The main feature of analog computers is that they are very fast in operation as all
the calculations are done in parallel mode. It is very easy to get graphical results
directly using analog computer. However, the accuracy of analog computers is
less

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Examples:
 Thermometer
 Voltmeter
 Speedometer
 Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of pumped
fuel into two measurements the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of
pumped fuel.
.
1.2. Digital Computers
 Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather
than measuring.
 Unlike analog computers, they operate directly on numbers (or digits) that
represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
 In digital computers, analog quantities must be converted into digital quantity
before processing.
 Digital computers have higher accuracy and speed than the analog ones.

Examples:
 Abacus
 Desk top & pocket computers
 The general purpose computers

1.3. Hybrid Computers

 These computers incorporated the measuring feature of analog computer and
counting feature of a digital computer.
 For computational purposes, these computers use the analog components and for
the storage of intermediate results, digital memories are used.
 A hybrid computer processes the information by collecting input data with analog
method, converts it into digital quantities, processes the digital values and
converts the output from digital to analog form.

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  These computers are broadly used for scientific applications, various fields of
engineering and industrial control processes
Example:
Intensive Care Unit (ICU) section, in the hospital, uses analog devices to measure the
patient’s heart function, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then
be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital component in the system. This
component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs and to send an immediate signal to
the nurse’s station if any abnormal readings are detected.

2. Classification According to Purpose

 Computers can be applied or used for different purposes.
 They can be used either for
2.1 special purposes or
2.2 general-purposes.
2.1. Special Purpose Computers
 They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is, their components and
function are uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific
application.
 These computes can not be used for other applications unless their circuits are
redesigned, that is, they lacked versatility.
 However, being designed for specific tasks, they can provide the result very
quickly and efficiently.
Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket calculators etc.
 Counters
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.

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2.2. General-purpose computers
 They are designed to solve a range of problems through the use of “store program
concept”.
 These machines can be used for various applications, ranging from scientific as
well as business purpose applications.
 Though such computers are versatile and flexible, they generally lack in speed
and efficiency.
Examples
• Micro computers
• Mini computers
• Super computers etc.

3. Classification According to Functionality, physical size,

performance and application areas
 At this stage, by a computer, we mean a general-purpose digital computer.
 Based on physical size, performance and application areas, we can divide
computers generally into four major categories:
3.1. microcomputer
3.2. minicomputer
3.3. Mainframe computer and
3.4. super computers.
3.4. Super computers
 These are the fastest, largest and most potential types of computer.
 They have speed of hundreds of millions of operations per second, a primary
memory capacity of about 80 million characters, and a secondary memory of
capacity of about 20 times its primary memory.
 They are multi-user systems in intercontinental range.
 They can carry out enormously complex scientific calculations.
 They are used to process huge amount of data and are commonly used in space
technology centers, meteorology stations, and astronomical observatories, inter
continental communications, airline organizations.

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3.3. Mainframe computers
 These computers are smaller in size and capacity, lower in speed & memory
capacity than super computers.
 However, they are multi-user systems and handle hundreds of users, usually used
in large organizations.
3.2. Mini computers
 They have relatively lower speed, capacity, and size than the above two types of
computers. They can handle multi-users.
 They use terminals for inputs and output. Mini computers are used in small
organizations.
3.1. Micro computers
 A Micro computer (personal or desktop computer) is a small, low cost digital
computer, which usually consists of a microprocessor, a storage unit, an input
channel, and an output channel, all of which may be on one chip inserted into one
or several PC boards.
 Microprocessor is a processor all of whose components are on a single integrated-
circuit chip. Since its CPU is integrated in a single circuit, it can serve only a
single user at a time.
 Most of home and personal office computers are microcomputers.
 Microcomputers include desktop, laptop, and handheld models such as PDA
(Personal Digital Assistants).
Desktop computers:
They are the most common micro computers. These micro computers typically consist of
a system unit, a display monitor, a keyboard, internal hard disk storage, and other
peripheral devices.
Laptop Computers:
A laptop is a portable computer, that is, a user can carry it around. Since the laptop
computer resembles a notebook, they are also known as notebooks. The main advantage
of this computer is that one can use this computer anywhere and at anytime, especially
when one is traveling and does not have a proper place to keep it. Moreover, these

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computers do not need any external power supply as a rechargeable battery is completely
self-contained by them.
Handheld Computers:
A hand-held computer is a computer that can conveniently be stored in a pocket and used
while the user is holding it. A PDA user generally uses a pen or electronic stylus, instead
of a keyboard for input. Since these computers can be easily fitted on the palmtop, they
are also known as palmtop computers.
The performance and usage of personal computer is relatively increased with a very high
rate.
Application area of Computers
The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are reasons to use
Computers.
 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
 Transmit information across continents via communication channels;
 Simulate events;
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability;
Therefore, computers are applicable for any functions or process that requires these
abilities.
The main areas of computer applications can be listed as follows:
Learning Aids
Example: learning toys, programs range from simple arithmetic to calculus, from English
grammar to creative writing and foreign language, and from basic graphics to engineering
design models,)
Entertainment
Examples: Games
Commercial or business applications
Computers are needed to perform business operations that require handling large amounts
of data. Several computer applications are available to assist business in working with
large volumes of data.

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Examples are:
 Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical analysis
Scientific – engineering and research applications
Computers are used for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design
work, and analysis and control of physical systems.
Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process
Information Utilities
Information utilities companies use large computers that store huge amount of
information about many different subjects. These computer systems and their vast
amount of data are available for personal use. For example: information utilities can
allow a computer user to read the daily news, research published works, send a letter to a
friend, play games, make airline reservations, obtain the latest stock market quotations,
and perform many other activities.
Example: Internet.
Ethiopian airline is a member of World-Wide reservation system called Gabriel system.
 The main database is located at Atlanta, Georgia
 More than 48 airlines including EAL share /extract/transmit information using
Gabriel
Facilities included:
 Booking of passengers on Domestic and International flight on EAL or Other
carrier (EX. Lufthansa).

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  Making hotel reservation for the travelers (i.e. the system is connected with major
hotels & travel agents)
 Massage correspondence with all stations which are members of Gabriel (i.e.
reconfirmation space availability, etc)
Elements involved in the reservation system are:
 Computer Network;
 Computer terminal;
 Communication Channels ( telephone lines, satellite, etc)
 Modems
Electronic Banking and Service:
Example:
 Teller Machine (customers are issued cards that permit them to use other banks
teller machine’s)
 Online banking (A bank customer can use his/ her computer to check account
balances, transfer funds, pay bills)
Shopping from Home
Individual may now shop by computer in the comfort of their home.
Household Control
A growing number of the newer houses hold devices are computers controlled. For
example: Security systems, refrigerators, microwave ovens, washers, stereos, and
televisions. This computer controlled home security system monitors movements, broken
glass, unlawful entry without a security code, and so on, and alerts the local police
department.
Weather and Environment
Computer equipment may show temperature ranges, precipitation levels and wind flow
and can be used in weather forecasting. Computer can also help in overcoming
environmental hazards.
Transportation
Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can fly under
the control of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by

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telling the computer what to do. In Cars, computers have provided functional controls
such as spark and fuel control.
Medical and Health Care
Computers have long been used by hospitals for routine record keeping. Today, however,
many people owe their lives to the computer. Computers are used in hospitals as sensors
(device that detect changes in blood pressure, heart rate, temperature), testing (scan the
body and provide 3-D figure), patient treatment.
Routine and Dangerous Tasks
Computers are used in routine tasks. And they can perform task in environments to
dangerous for human workers.
Consultant (Expert system)
An Expert system is a computer program, which can solve problems from a specific
knowledge base. These systems don't replace expert humans because the knowledge base
of expert system is given from the skilled specialist.
Example: Mycin (a medical diagnostic program by using sophisticated decision making
process).
History of Computers
We have all heard stories of primitive peoples counting their sheep by moving sticks or
stones. Our base-ten number system undoubtedly grew from the use of 10 fingers as
counting objects.
Together with the development of people, the need to calculate and keep track of
information had become popular issue. So they soon develop a simple computing device
and had a power of storing small information. However, many thousands of years elapsed
before developing mechanical calculator.
Some of the calculating devises are mentioned bellow:
a) The Abacus: - It is one of the earliest mechanical computational devices. It was in
use in the Middle East as early as 2500 BC. The familiar Chinese abacus (dating
approximately 1200 AD) is composed of a frame and a number of wires. The wires
correspond to position of digits in decimal number units: tens, hundreds, and so on-
and the beads represent digits. Beads above the cross bar represent 5 and that bellow
represent 1.

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 The abacus shows zero, if all the bead bellow the cross bar are at the lower frame and
above are at the upper frame.
Addition of two numbers on the abacus can be performed by representing the first
number and the second number without resetting the first. On any wire showing 10 or
more, the two beads above the cross bar are moved back, and an extra 1 (the Cary) is
added two the wire on the left.
This process can be easily generalized to addition and subtraction of more than two
numbers.
b) Pascal’s Calculator: - It is the first true mechanical calculator. In 1642, at the age of
19, the French philosopher and mathematician Blaise Pascal developed a rotating
wheel calculator, the predecessor of the latter popular desktop calculator. He built
largely to assist his father, who was a tax collector in the town of Rouen, Pascal’s
calculator has one wheel corresponding to each power of 10; each wheel has 10
position, one for each of the digits (0,..9). Although, Pascal’s calculator could only
add and subtract, it could be used indirectly for multiplication (by successive
addition) and division (by successive subtraction) as well.
c) The Difference Engine: - It is the forerunner of the modern computer. Charles
Babbage (1792-1871), a British mathematician and engineer, is considered by many
to be the real father of today’s computer was the developer of the difference engine
and designer of the analytical engine. The difference engine also based on the rotating
wheels principle and it was operated by means of a single crank. This devise has a
power of calculation and print the out put with out human intervention. He finally
designed significantly improved version of the difference engine (but not built) called
Analytic engine. It has different key components
- The store: A memory wheel consisting of set of counter wheels
- The mill: An arithmetic unit capable of performing the four basic arithmetic
operations. It operated on pairs of mechanical registers and produced a result
stored in another register, all of which were located in the store.
- Operation cards: These cards selected one of the four arithmetic operations by
activating the mill to perform the selected function.

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 - Variable cards: These cards selected the memory locations to be used by the mill
for a particular operation (a source of operand and the destination of the result).
- Out put: was to print or a card punch device.
But finally the design halt largely due to the technology of the day is not far enough
too supply the required raw materials.
d) Herman Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine: - Herman Hollerith was a statistician that
in 1880 and develop his machine commissioned by the U.S. Census Bureau to
develop a technique for speeding up the processing of census data that took at least 8
years before. He develops his machine that uses the punched card to punch the census
data and tabulated by using his machine. This machine processes the 1890 American
census data with in 3 years. It was really a great development. He finally began the
tabulating Machine Company, which later becomes the International Business
Machine Corporation (IBM).
e) Mark I: - Developed by Howard Aiken at Harvard University (1944) which was the
first electromechanical computer. Instruction was provided by means of punched
paper tape, which combined the functions of Babbage’s operation cards and variable
cards. Each instruction had the format A1 A2 OP where A1 and A2 are registers
storing the operand, OP is the operation to be performed (e.g. +, -, x, ÷). Mark I could
do a single addition in 6 seconds and division in 12 seconds.
f) ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer): - Developed by Eckert
and Mauchly at the university of Pennsylvania. This was the first electronic calculator
and first general purpose digital computer. This machine was enormous, weighing 30
tones. Occupying 15,000 square feet of floor space and containing over 18,000
vacuum tubes. When operating, it consumed over 140 KWPH of power. It had a
capability of performing 5,000 additions per second. Its memory consisted of 20
“accumulators” each capable of holding a 10 digit decimal number. Each digit was
represented by a ring of 10 vacuum tubes. At any time, only one of the 10 tubes was
in ON state, representing one of the 10 digits.
 ENIAC did not use internally stored programs. Programs were wired on boards
similar to a telephone switch board.

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  One of the major drawbacks of ENIAC was that it had to be programmed
manually by setting switches and plugging and unplugging cables.
g) The Von Neumann Machine: - The task of entering and altering programs for the
ENIAC was extremely tedious. Von Neumann was the consultant on the ENIAC
project and forward the stored program concept, i.e. designing the computer to get its
instruction by reading them from memory alongside the data and a program could be
set or altered by setting the values of a portion of a memory. Based on this concept,
the first true electronic computers were developed by the name EDVAC (Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) and EDSAC( Electronic Delay Storage
Automatic Computer).
h) Commercial Computers: - The 1950s saw the birth of computers industry with two
companies, Spery and IBM, dominating the market place. In 1947, Eckert and
Mauchly develop their successful commercial computer called UNIVAC I (Universal
Automatic Computer). UNIVAC was division of Remington Rand (later Sperry Rand
Corporation). IBM also the major manufacturer of punched card processing
equipment, delivered its first electronic stored program computer, the IBM 701, in
1953.
Generation of Computers
Actually there are four generations and major characteristics that distinguish these
generations are the following:
 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.
 Major secondary storage media used.
 Computer language used.
 Types or characteristic of operating system used.
 Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word or data from memory).
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware,
typically refold or better increases in speed and reliability.
First generation (1950s)
 Used vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit.
 Punched cards were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams were used for
internal storage.

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  Operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousands of a second) and could handle more
than 10,000 additions each second.
 Most applications were scientific calculations.
Second generations (early 1960s)
 Transistors were the main circuit components. (Transistors are a solid state device
made from silicon which is smaller, cheaper, faster, dissipate less energy and
more reliable than vacuum tube but work in the same way with the vacuum tube.)
 Invented by Bell Labs.
 Magnetic tapes (similar with home tape caste), used for main storage,
 Operate in microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than 200,000
additions possible each second.
 Business applications become more commonplace, with large data files stored on
magnetic tape and disk. (Magnetic disk: is a circular platter constructed of metal
or plastic materials coated with magnetizable substance.)
 High-level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during this
period. Batch operating systems are used that permitted rapid processing of
magnetic tape files.
Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)
 Characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC). (A single, self-
contained transistor is called discrete component. In early 1960 electronic
equipment composed of discrete components transistors, capacitors, resistors,
They are:
 manufactured separately
 Packed in their own containers and soldered (wired together) on a circuit
board. So the entire manufacturing process was cumbersome and
expensive. Do to these and other problems in 1958 the achievement that
revolutionized electronics started the era of microelectronics: the invention
of integrated circuit.
 Computer storage switched from magnetic cores to integrated circuit boards that
provide modularity (expandable storage) and compatibility (interchangeable
equipment

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  New input/output methods such as optical scanning and plotters.
 Software become more important with sophisticated operating systems, improved
programming languages,
Fourth generation (late 1970s, early 1989s)
 Greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry.
 Has a large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) which has several hundred thousands
transistors placed on one tiny silicon chip.
 Computer memory operates at speeds of nano seconds (billionths of a second)
with large computers capable of adding 15 million numbers per second.
The fifth generation computer is in progress. An architecture, which makes use of
the changes in technology and allows a simple and natural methodology for solving
problems, is being sought. These computers will have intelligent processors i.e.,
processors which can draw inferences. Users will also be able to interact with them in
natural languages such as English, German etc. Japans are working intensively on the
project for developing the 5th generation.
Summary of generation of computers
Generation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Circuit element Vacuum tube Transistor IC LSI VLSI
SSD Punched card Magnetic Tape Magnetic disk Mass storage device
Language Machine & Fortran, Structured Application oriented
assembly COBOL etc language
Operating Operator Batch system Application Time sharing
system control oriented
Mem. Access 1ms 10μs 10ns 1ns
time
Approx. date 1946-57 1958-64 1965-71 From 1971 above
examples ENIAC, IBM7090, IBM system Late IBM product
UNIVAC, 7094
UDVAC

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Chapter Two
Data Representation in Computers
We enter data into a computer or review (see) output data from a computer using the
letter of alphabet, various special symbols, and the numerals in the decimal number
system. But since computer is an electronic device, which understands electrical flow
(signal), there is no letter, symbol or number inside the computer. Computer works with
binary numbers. As a semiconductor is conducting or isn’t conducting; a switch is closed
or opened. So data are represented in the form of a code that can have a corresponding
electrical signal.
4.1 Units of Data Representation
When data is stored, processed or communicated within the computer system, it is packed
in units. Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are called bit, byte, and word;
These units are based on the binary number system.
BIT:
 Bits are the smallest units and can convey only two possible states 0 or 1;
 Bit stands for Binary digits;
 A bit is a single element in the computer, on a disk that stands for either “ON”
indicating 1 or “OFF” indicating 0;
In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of current and “OFF” is represented
by the non-existence of current. On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by
changing the polarity of magnetized particles on the disk’s surface.
BYTE:
Bits can be organized into large units to make them represent more and meaningful
information. This large unit is called a byte and is the basic “unit of data representation”
in a computer system. The commonly used byte contains 8 bits. Since each bit has two
states and there are 8 bits in a byte, the total amount of data that can be represented using
a single byte is 28 or 256 possible combinations. Each byte can represent a character (a
character is either a letter, a number or a special symbol such as +,-,?,*, $, etc).
A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in the computer memory, processing unit,
external storage and during communication. If the computer memory is 524288 byte, this

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is expressed in short by saying 512KB, where KB stands for kilobyte.
- 1 Kilobyte (1KB) is 210 or 1024 bytes
- 1 Megabyte (MB) is 220 bytes or 210 kilobytes
- 1 Gigabyte (GB) is 230 bytes or 220 kilobytes or 210 megabytes
WORD:
Word refers the number of bits that a computer process at a time or a transmission media
transmits at a time. Although bytes can store or transmit information, the process can
even be faster if more than one byte is processed at a once. A combination of bytes, then
form a “word”. A word can contain one, two, three or four bytes based on the capacity of
the computer. Word length is usually given in bits. We say that a computer is an 8-bit, a
16 bit, a 32 bit or a 64 bit computer to indicate that the amount of data it can process at a
time. The larger the word length a computer has the more powerful and faster it is.
4.2 Concept of Number Systems
Since the early days of human civilization, people have been using their fingers, sticks,
and other things for counting. As daily activities became more complex, numbers became
more important in trade, time, distance, and in all spheres of human life. A number
system defines a set of values used to represent quantity. There are various number
systems e.g. decimal, binary, octal, hexadecimal, etc each differs one another by the
number of symbols used in the system. Each numbering system used different symbols to
represent a given quantity.
For a computer, everything is a number whether it may be numbers, alphabets,
punctuation marks, its own instructions, etc. The number systems that are generally used
by computers are: decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal.
4.2.1 The Decimal Number System
The primary number system used is a base ten number system or decimal number system.
The Decimal number system is based on the ten different digits or symbols
(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9).
Starting at the decimal point and moving to the left, each position is represented by the
base (radix) value (10 for decimal) raised to power. The power starts at Zero for the
position just to the left of the decimal point. The power incremented for each positions
that continues to the left. Moving to the right of the decimal point is just like moving to

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the left except that we will need to place a minus sign in front of each power.
For example: (8762)10 = (8*103) + (7*102) + (6*101) + (2*100)
(0.475)10= (4*10-1) + (7*10-2) + (5*10-3)
4.2.2 The Binary number system
Computers do not use the ten digits of the decimal system for counting and arithmetic.
Their internal structure (mainly the CPU and memory) are made up of millions of tiny
switches that can be either in an ON or OFF states. Two digits, 0 and 1, are used to refer
for these two states.
Binary number system is based on the two different digits; 0 and 1. With binary number
system, it is very easier for the hardware to represent the data. Binary number system is
base two number system.
For example: (01100)2 , (10110.011)2 , etc
4.2.3 Octal number system
The octal number system with its eight symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) is a base 8 system.
For example: (322)8, (10.25)8, etc
4.2.4 Hexadecimal number system
Hexadecimal number system is another number system that works exactly like the
decimal and binary number systems, except that the base is 16. It uses 16 symbols (0-9,
and A-F characters to represent 10-15).
For example: (8F0)16 , (D.45)16, etc
4.2.5 Conversion between Number Systems
Computers use binary numbers for internal data representation whereas they use decimal
numbers externally. Therefore, there should be some conversion between number
systems in order to represent data in a computer that is originally represented in other
number systems. Some conversion methods are discussed below.
Decimal to Binary
It is important to note that every decimal number system has its equivalent binary
number. For example

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Binary Decimal Binary Decimal
0 0 101 5
01 1 110 6
10 2 111 7
11 3 1000 8
100 4 1001 9 etc.
Conversion from binary to its equivalent decimal and from decimal to its equivalent
binary is possible. The method, which is used for the conversion of decimal into binary,
is often called as the remainder method. This method involves the following steps.
- Begin by dividing the decimal number by 2 (the base of binary number system)
- Note the remainder separately as the rightmost digit of the binary equivalent
- Continually repeat the process of dividing by 2 until quotient is zero and keep writing
the remainders after each step of division (these remainders will either be 0 or 1)
- Finally, when no more division can occur, write down the remainders in reverse order
(last remainder written first)
Example: Determine the binary equivalent of (44)10

2 44 Remainder

2 22 0 MSB (Most Significant Bit)

2 11 0

2 5 1

2 2 1
0
2 1
1
LSB (List Significant Bit)
Taking the remainder in reverse order we have 101100. Thus the binary equivalent of
(44)10 is (101100)2
In general to convert a decimal number X to a number in base M, divide X by M, store
the remainder, again divide the quotient by M, store the remainder, and continue until the
quotient is 0. And concatenate (collect) the remainders starting from the last up to the
first.

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Example: Convert 7810 to base eight (Octal)
7810=1168
Example: Convert 3010 to base sixteen (hexadecimal)
3010=1E16
Binary to Decimal
In the binary to decimal conversion, each digit of the binary number is multiplied by its
weighted position, and each of the weighted values is added together to get the decimal
number.
Example: Determine the decimal equivalent of (100100)2
1*25 + 0*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 +0*20 = 32+4 =36
Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (100100)2 is 36
In general To convert a number X consists of digits X1 X2 X3 …Xn in base m to decimal;
simply expand the number with base m. That is
(X1X2X3…Xn) m =X1*mn-1+X2*mn-2 +X3*mn-3+...+ Xi*mn-i+… Xn-1m1+Xn*m0
=Y10
Example: convert (234)8 to decimal
=2*82 + 3*81 + 4*80 = 128+24+4 = 156
Example: convert (A1B) 16 to decimal
=A*162 + 1*161 + B*160 = 2587
Binary (base2) to Octal (base 8) or hexadecimal (base16) and vice versa
To convert a number in binary to octal group three binary digits together starting from the
last digit (right) and if there are no enough digits add zeros to the front end (left) and find
the corresponding Octal of each group.
Example: Convert 1001001 to octal Convert 101101001 to octal
1001001=001,001,001 101101001 =101,101,001
= 1118 =5518

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To convert binary to hexadecimal group four binary digits together starting from right
and if there are no enough digits add zeros at the left.
Example: Convert 111100100 to Convert 111001111 to Hexadecimal
hexadecimal 111001111 =0001 1100 1111
111100100 =0001 1110 0100 =1 12 15
=1 14 4 =1 B F
=1 E 4 =(1BF)16
= (1E4)16
To convert from Octal to binary, convert each octal digit to its equivalent 3 bit binary
starting from right.
Example: Convert (675) eight to binary Convert 231eight to binary

675eight =110 111 101 231eight = 010 011 001

=(110111101)two =(10011001)two

To convert from Hexadecimal to binary convert each hex. Digit to its equivalent 4-bit
binary starting from right.
Example: Convert 23416 to binary Convert 2AC to binary
23416 =0010 0011 0100 2AC16 =0010 1010 1100
= 10001101002 =10101011002

Octal to hexadecimal and Vise versa

To convert from Octal to hexadecimal, first we have to convert to binary and the binary
to hexadecimal. To convert from hexadecimal to Octal, first we have to convert to binary
and then the binary to Octal.
Example: Convert 2358 to hexadecimal Convert (1A)16 to Octal
2388=010 011 101 1A=0001 1010
=0000 1001 1101 =000 011 010
=0 9 13 = 0 3 2
=9D16 =328

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Summary of conversion from One base to another base
From base To base Method
2 10 Expand binary number in powers of 2
10 2 Factor the decimal number by 2
2 8 Group 3 binary digits together
8 2 Each Octal digit is converted to 3 binary digits
2 16 Group 4 binary digits together
16 2 Each hexadecimal digit is converted to 4 binary digits
8 10 Expand the number in powers of 8
10 8 Factor the decimal number by 8
16 10 Expand the number in powers of 16
10 16 Factor the decimal number by 16
8 16 Go from 8 …….2…….16
16 8 Go from 16 …….2…….8

4.3 CODING METHODS

In today’s technology, the binary number system is used by the computer system to
represent the data in the computer in understandable format. There are a lot of ways to
represent, numeric, alphabetic, and special characters in computer’s internal storage area.
It is possible to represent any of the character in our language in a way as a series of
electrical switches in arranged manner. These switch arrangements can therefore be
coded as a series of equivalent arrangements of bits. In this way, every character can be
represented by a combination of bits that is different from any other combination.
There are different coding systems that convert one or more character sets into computer
codes. Some are: EBCDIC, BCD, ASCII-7 & ASCII-8, Unicode, etc.
In these encodings, binary coding schemes separate the characters, known as character
set, in to zones. Zone groups characters together so as to make the coding scheme to
decipher and the data easier to process. With in each zone, the individual characters are
identified by digit code.

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EBCDIC: Pronounced as “Eb-see-dick” and stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code.
It is an 8-bit coding scheme: (00000000 – 11111111), i.e. it uses 8 bits to represent each
character. It accommodates to code 28 or 256 different characters. This provides a unique
code for each decimal value 0 to 9 , each upper and lower case English letter (for total of
52), and for a variety of special characters. Since it is an 8-bit code, each group of the
eight bits makes up one alphabetic, numeric, or special character. It is a standard coding
scheme for the large computers.
Coding Examples
EBCDIC
Character zone (4 Bit) digit (4 Bit) Character Zone Digit
0-9 15 0-9
a-i 8 1-9 a 1000 0001
j-r 9 1-9 b 1000 0010
s-z 10 2-9 A 1100 0001
A-I 12 1-9 B 1100 0010
J-R 13 1-9 0 1111 0000
S-Z 14 2-9 9 1111 1001

BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)

There were two types of BCD coding techniques used before. The 4 bit BCD, which represent
any digit of decimal number by four bits of binary numbers.
If you want to represent 219 using 4 bit BCD you have to say 0010 0001 1001
 4 bits BCD numbers are useful whenever decimal information is transferred into or out of a
digital system. Examples of BCD systems are electronic ousters, digital voltmeter, and
digital clocks; their circuits can work with BCD numbers.
 BCD’s are easy for conversion but slower for processing than binary. And they have limited
numbers because with BCD we can represent only numbers 0000 for 0 and 1001 for 9 .
BCD (6-bits)
It uses 6-bits to code a Character (2 for zone bit and 4 for digit bit) it can represent 2 6 = 64
characters (10 digits, 26 capital characters and some other special characters).

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Some Coding Examples
Character zone (2 Bit) digit(4 Bit)
0-9 0 0-9
A-I 3 1-9

Character Zone digits

A 11 0001
Q 10 1000
8 00 1000
9 00 1001
ASCII-7
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. ASCII-7 used
widely before the introduction of ASCII-8 (the Extended ASCII). It uses 7 bits to
represent a character. With the seven bits, 27( or 128) different characters can be coded
(0000000-1111111). It has 3 zone and 4 digit bits positions
Coding examples:
Charter zone (3 bit) digit(4 bit) $ 010 0100
0-9 3 0-9 % 010 0101
A-O 4 1-15 A 100 0001
P-Z 5 1-10 a 110 0001
b 110 0010

The ASCII System

Also referred as ASCII-8 or Extended ASCII. It is commonly used in the transmission of
data through data communication and is used almost exclusively to represent data
internally in microcomputers. ASCII uses 8-bits to represent alphanumeric characters
(letters, digits and special symbols). With the 8-bits, ASCII can represent 28 or 256
different characters (00000000-11111111). It assigns 4 bits for the zone and the rest for

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the digit.

Coding Examples:
Character zone (3 BIT) digit (4 BIT) a 0110 0001
0-9 3 0-9 b 0110 0010
A-O 4 1-15 A 0100 0001
P-Z 5 0-10 B 0100 0010
a-o 6 1-15 ? 0011 1111
p-z 7 0-10 + 0010 1011
1 0011 0001
Unicode
Unicode has started to replace ASCII and other coding methods at all levels. It enables
users to handle not only practically any script and language used on this planet; it also
supports a comprehensive set of mathematical and technical symbols to simplify
scientific information exchange. Unicode provides a unique number for every character,
no matter what the platform, no matter what the program, no matter what the language.
Unicode was originally designed to be a 16-bit code, but it was extended so that currently
code positions are expressed as integers in the hexadecimal range 0..10FFFF (decimal
0..1 114 111).

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 Chapter-3

Computer System
2.1 What is a system?
 Recall from your previous studies that you know systems like Digestive system,
Circulatory system and so on.
 What similarity can you understand from these systems? For example, digestive
system is composed of a group of components like mouth, stomach, and intestine
and so on.
 You can also see that the output of one of the components will become the input
of the other component.
 For example, in digestive system, mouth partly digests, lubricates and pushes the
food to the stomach as input. The stomach then performs digestion and sends its
output to the intestine which in turn does the same.
 From this you can understand that the components work together in coordination
in such a way that the input of one component is the output of the other until a
common goal is achieved.
 For example: in digestive system, the common goal is digestion of food.
Likewise, a computer system is also composed of physical components
(hardware) and non-physical component (software) that work together in
coordination to achieve a common goal (data processing).
 The common goal of computer system (i.e., data processing has been discussed in
chapter one) and some of computer system components will be discussed in this
chapter hereafter.
 A system is a group of components that work together in coordination to achieve
a common goal.

2.2 Components of Computer System

Computer system is a system that has two fundamental components:

 Hardware component and

 Software component.

2.3 Hardware Component

Hardware is the physical component of the computer system that we can see,
touch and sense. It includes devices the computer system use to interact with the
external world, to process the data it has received, to store the data it has
received and processed
2.3.1 Input devices
 The function of input devices is to accept data and convert it into a form suitable
for computer processing.
 input hardware allows people to put data into the computer in a form that the
computer can use. It may include: keyboard, mouse, scanner and so on.

9
 2.3.1.1 Keyboard

 A computer keyboard is a peripheral modeled after the typewriter keyboard.

 Keyboards are designed for the input of text and characters and also to control the
operation of a computer.
 Physically, computer keyboards are an arrangement of rectangular or near-
rectangular buttons, or "keys".
 Keyboards typically have characters engraved or printed on the keys; in most
cases, each press of a key corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to
produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously
or in sequence; other keys do not produce any symbol, but instead affect the
operation of the computer or the keyboard itself.
 The keys on the keyboard are grouped according to their functions as follows:

 Alphanumeric keys

 The group of keys that comprises the alphabets, punctuation marks, and digits.
These keys are used to enter text, digit, and punctuation marks.

 Function keys

 The group of keys found at the top of keyboard labeled from F1 to F12. These
keys execute different commands based on the applications that are running.

 Numeric keypad

 Found at the right most of the keyboard, is the numeric keypad.

 These keys work with the special key called NumLock – located at the left-top
corner of the numeric keypad.
 When NumLock is on, the numeric keypad is used to enter digits and arithmetic
operators.
 However, when NumLock is off, the numeric keypad is used as cursor movement
keys.

 Cursor movement keys

 Cursor movement keys: The Cursor, also called the insertion point, is the symbol
on the display screen that shows where data may be entered next.
 The cursor movement keys, or arrow keys, are used to move the cursor around the
text on the screen.
 These keys move the cursor left, right, up or down.
 The keys labeled Page Up and Page Down move the cursor, the equivalent of one
page, up or down on the screen.
 Similarly, the keys labeled Home and End move the cursor to the beginning and
end of the same line respectively.

10
  Editing keys

 Editing keys are the keys which are used to make our text stylish.
 They change what has been entered.
 Editing keys include: Spacebar, Enter (Return), Delete, Backspace, etc.

 Special keys

 Special keys are keys that are used to execute some commands.
 They also work in combination with other keys to execute commands.
 These keys include: Shift, Alt, Ctrl etc.

2.3.1.2 Mouse

 A mouse is a device that is rolled about on a desktop to direct a pointer on the

computer’s display screen.
 The pointer is a symbol, usually an arrow that is used to select items from lists
(menus) on the screen or to position the cursor.
 The cursor, also called an insertion point, is the symbol on the screen that shows
where data may be entered next, such as text in a document.
 Mouse consists of:

o Primary button (Left button)

o Secondary button (Right Button)
 The following operations can be performed using the mouse.
o Selection (Single click)
o Giving Commands (Double click)
o Dragging Objects (By pressing mouse button and
moving the mouse)
o Dropping Objects (By releasing mouse button)

2.3.1.3 Scanner

 Scanners - translate images of text, drawings and photos into digital form.
 The images can then be processed by a computer, displayed on a monitor, inserted
in documents, stored on a storage device, or transmitted to another computer.
 Scanners are useful for data entry in that they save time wasted for typing and
also they avoid errors that may occur during typing.
 Based on the technology they use to scan, scanners are of the following types:

 BCR – Bar Code Reader

 A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is a computer peripheral for
reading barcodes printed on various surfaces.
 It generally consists of a light source, a lens and a photo conductor
translating optical impulses into electrical ones.

11
  Additionally, nearly all barcode readers currently produced contain
decoder circuitry analyzing the barcode's image data provided by the
photo conductor and sending the barcode's content to the scanner's output
port.

 OCR – Optical Character Reader

 OCR is a character recognition technology that is used to recognize
typewritten or handwritten characters.

 OMR – Optical Mark Recognition

 OMR technology detects the absence or presence of a mark (a mark made
by graphite), but not the shape of the mark.
 The accuracy of OMR is a result of precise measurement of the darkness
of a mark, and the sophisticated mark discrimination algorithms for
determining whether a mark is an erasure or a mark.

 MICR – Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

 MICR is a character recognition technology adopted mainly by the
banking industry to facilitate the processing of checks.
 MICR characters are printed with a magnetic ink or toner.
 Magnetic printing is used so that the characters can be reliably read into a
system, even when they have been overprinted with other marks such as
cancellation stamps.
 The characters are read with a device similar in nature to the head of an
audio tape recorder, and the letterforms' bulbous shapes insure that each
letter produces a unique waveform for the read head.

2.3.1.4 Joystick
 Joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle mounted on a base
containing one or two buttons.
 The vertical handle of the joystick can be rotated around 360 degrees.
 As the handle is rotated the cursor also moves on the screen.
 Joystick is often used for playing games.

2.3.1.5 Microphone
 The word "microphone" (Greek mikros "small" and phone "voice" or "sound")
originally referred to a mechanical hearing aid for small sounds.
 Therefore, microphones have a great role in inputting sound or voice data into the
computer for processing.
 Without the microphone computers could not have produced any sound nor could
they have been used to manipulate music and sound.

2.3.1.6 Touch screen

Touch screens or touch panels or touch screen panels are display overlays which have
the ability to display and receive information on the same screen. The effect of such

12
overlays allows a display to be used as an input device, removing the keyboard and/or the
mouse as the primary input device for interacting with the display's content.

Fig. 1 An Example Display in Touch Screen

Touch screens have become commonplace since the invention of the electronic touch
interface in 1971 by Dr. Samuel C. Hurst. They have become familiar in retail settings,
on point of sale systems, on ATM (Automated Teller Machines) and on PDA (Personla
Digital Assistant) where a stylus is sometimes used to manipulate the GUI (Graphic User
Interface) and to enter data. Touch screen can also be considered as output device as it
displays selectable commands.

2.3.1.7 Touch pad

In Touchpad the cursor is controlled with the fingers. About the same size as a mouse,
touchpad is a flat, rectangular device. As fingers are moved over the surface of the
touchpad the cursor moves on the screen. The click operation is performed by tapping
the fingers on the surface of the pad.

2.3.1.8 Track ball

Track Ball is another pointing device and a variant of the mouse. It contains a rotating
ball on top of the stationery device. On rotating the ball the cursor moves on the screen.
The track ball also contains two buttons and the operations are as similar for the mouse.
It requires less desk space when compared to the mouse.

2.3.1.9 Light pen

The Light Pen is a light sensitive stylus or pen like device, connected by a wire to the
computer. There is a button in the Light Pen. When the user brings the pen to the
desired location in the screen and presses the button, the computer identifies the
command and executes accordingly. It is mainly used for CAD (Computer Aided
Design) applications.

13
 2.3.2 Processing devices
2.3.2.1 CPU

Fig. 2 typical CPU

 Stands for central processing unit.
 CPU is the brains of the computer.
 Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central processor,
 The CPU is where most calculations take place.
 In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a
computer system.
 On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards.
 On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip
called a microprocessor.

CPU has three components, namely:

 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic

(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) and logical
(comparison, negation, conjunction, and disjunction)
operations.
 The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and
decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when
necessary.
 The Memory unit or registers, which store intermediate results
of ALU

2.3.3 Storage devices

2.3.3.1 Storage Capacity Measurement

 Bit (Binary Digit):

 A bit of storage is like a light switch; it can be either on (1) or off (0).

14
  A single bit is a one or a zero, a true or a false, a "flag" which is "on" or "off", or
in general, the quantity of information required to distinguish two mutually
exclusive states from each other.
 The bit is the smallest unit of storage used in computing.

 Byte:

 Byte is a contiguous sequence of a fixed number of bits.

 KB (Kilo byte): A kilo byte is 210 bytes = 210 x 8 bits
 MB (Mega byte): A mega byte is 220 bytes = 220 x 8 bits
 GB (Giga byte): A giga byte is 230 bytes = 230 x 8 bits
 TB (Tera byte): A tera byte is 240 bytes =240 x 8 bits

Example: If a storage device is 23 GB, find the memory capacity in

a. byte
b. bit

Solution:

a)

1 GB = 230byte

23 GB = y

y = 23 GB x 230 byte/1 GB

y = 23x230 byte

b)

1GB = 8 x 230 bit

23 GB = y

y = 23 GB x 8 x 230 bit/1 GB

y = 23 x 8 x 230 bit

2.3.3.2 Primary storage

2.3.3.2.1 Cache memory
 Small memories on or close to the CPU chip can be made faster
than the much larger RAM (main memory).
 Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches, and
modern general-purpose CPUs inside personal computers may

15
 have as many as half a dozen, each specialized to a different part of
the problem of executing programs.

2.3.3.2.2 RAM (Random Access Memory)

 RAM in a computer is considered main memory or
primary storage: the working area used for loading,
displaying and manipulating applications and data.
 This type of RAM is usually in the form of integrated
circuits (ICs).
 These are commonly called memory sticks or RAM
sticks because they are manufactured as small circuit
boards with plastic packaging and are about the size of
a few sticks of chewing gum.
 These days, most personal computers have slots for
adding and replacing memory sticks.
 RAM is also volatile, losing the stored information in
an event of power loss, and quite expensive.

Fig. 3 Typical RAM stick

2.3.3.2.3 ROM (Read-only Memory)

 Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage media

used in computers and other electronic devices.
 Because it cannot (easily) be written to, its main uses
lie in the distribution of firmware (software that is very
closely related to hardware and not likely to need
frequent upgrading).
 "ROM" in its strictest sense can only be read from, but
all ROMs allow data to be written into them at least
once, either during initial manufacturing or during a
step called "programming".
 ROMs can be erased and re-programmed multiple
times, although they are still referred to as "read only"
because the reprogramming process involves relatively
infrequent, complete erasure and reprogramming

16
 Types of ROM

 Classic mask-programmed ROM chips are written to during production and

cannot change content afterwards.
 But there are other types of non-volatile solid-state memory:

 PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be written to (program) via a

special device, a PROM programmer. The writing often takes the form of
permanently destroying or creating internal links (fuses or anti fuses) with the
result that a PROM can only be programmed once.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be erased by
exposure to ultraviolet light then rewritten via an EPROM programmer. Repeated
exposure to ultraviolet light will eventually destroy the EPROM but it generally
takes many (greater than 1000) exposures before the EPROM becomes unusable.
EPROM can be easily identified by the circular 'window' in the top which allows
the UV light to enter. Once programmed, this window is typically covered by a
label to prevent accidental erasure.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) allow the
entire ROM (or selected banks of the ROM) to be electrically erased (flashed
back to zero) then written to without taking them out of the computer (camera,
MP3 player, etc.). Flashing is much slower (in milliseconds) than writing to RAM
(in nanoseconds) (or reading from any ROM).

2.3.3.3 Secondary storage

 secondary storage, or external memory, is computer memory that is
not directly accessible to the central processing unit of a computer,
requiring the use of computer's input/output channels.
 Secondary storage is used to store data that is not in active use.
 Secondary storage is usually slower than primary storage, or internal
memory, but also almost always has higher storage capacity and is
non-volatile, which makes it perfect for the preservation of stored
information in an event of power loss.

 Magnetic tape
 Magnetic tape is a non-volatile storage medium consisting of a magnetic coating
on a thin plastic strip.
 Nearly all recording tape is of this type, whether used for video, audio storage or
general purpose digital data storage using a computer.
 It has large storage capacity but it is slow to access because it is sequentially
accessed.

 Magnetic disk
o Floppy Disk
 A floppy disk is a data storage device that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible
("floppy") magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic
shell.

17
 Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive.
 Floppy disk is cheap, and portable, but it has small storage capacity (1.44 MB)
and is unreliable.

o Hard disk
 A hard disk drive (HDD, also commonly shortened to hard drive and formerly
known as a fixed disk) is a digitally encoded non-volatile storage device which
stores data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces.
 Strictly speaking, "drive" refers to an entire unit containing multiple platters, a
read/write head assembly, driver electronics, and motor while "hard disk"
(sometimes "platter") refers to the storage medium itself.
 Hard disks were originally developed for use with computers.
 Optical disk
o CD-R
 A CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) is a variation of the Compact Disc invented
by Philips and Sony.
 CD-R is a write once, read-only optical magnetic media commonly known as
optical disc (though the whole disk does not have to be written in the same
session) and retains a high level of compatibility with standard CD readers (unlike
CD-RW which can be rewritten but has much lower compatibility and the discs
are considerably more expensive).

o CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable)

 CD-RW is a rewritable optical disc format. Known as CD-Erasable (CD-E)
during its development, CD-RW was introduced in 1997.

o DVD(Digital Versatile Disc)

 DVD (sometimes called "Digital Versatile Disc” or "Digital Video Disc") is an
optical disc storage media format that can be used for data storage, including
movies with high video and sound quality.
 DVDs resemble compact discs as their physical dimensions are the same but they
are encoded in a different format and at a much higher density.

 Flash Memory
 USB flash drives -thumb drives, handy drives-, which are used for general storage
and transfer of data between computers. It has also gained some popularity in the
gaming market these days. Flash memory is highly portable and it can store much
data but it is expensive.

2.3.4 Output devices

2.3.4.1 Display devices – softcopy output
 CRT
 Abbreviation of cathode-ray tube, the technology used in most televisions and
computer display screens.
 CRT works by moving an electron beam back and forth across the back of the
screen.

18
 Each time the beam makes a pass across the screen, it lights up phosphor dots on
the inside of the glass tube, thereby illuminating the active portions of the screen.
By drawing many such lines from the top to the bottom of the screen, it creates an
entire screenful of images.
 It is large in size and requires a lot of space. Moreover, it consumes much power.
But it produces a sharp output.

 LCD
Short for liquid crystal display, a type of display used in digital
watches and many portable computers. LCD displays utilize
two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution
between them. An electric current passed through the liquid
causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through
them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing
light to pass through or blocking the light.

Monochrome LCD images usually appear as blue or dark gray

images on top of a grayish-white background. Color LCD
displays use two basic techniques for producing color: Passive
matrix is the less expensive of the two technologies. The other
technology, called thin film transistor (TFT) or active-matrix,
produces color images that are as sharp as traditional CRT
displays, but the technology is expensive. Its advantage is that
it does not consume a lot of space since it is thin and that it
does not consume a lot of power hence it is ideal for portable
computers.

 ELD
 A technology used to produce a very thin display screen, called a flat-
panel display, used in some portable computers.
 An ELD works by sandwiching a thin film of phosphorescent
substance between two plates.
 One plate is coated with vertical wires and the other with horizontal
wires, forming a grid.
 When electric current is passed through a horizontal and vertical wire,
the phosphorescent film at the intersection glows, creating a point of
light, called pixel.

2.3.4.2 Printer – hardcopy output

Printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper. There
are many different types of printers. In terms of the technology
they utilize, printers fall into the following categories:
Daisy-wheel: Similar to a ball-head typewriter, this type
of printer has a plastic or metal wheel on which the shape
of each character stands out in relief. A hammer presses the
wheel against a ribbon, which in turn makes an ink stain in

19
 the shape of the character on the paper. Daisy-wheel
printers produce letter-quality print but cannot print
graphics.

 Dot-matrix: Creates characters by striking pins against

an ink ribbon. Each pin makes a dot, and combinations of
dots form characters and illustrations.

 Ink-jet: Sprays ink at a sheet of paper. Ink-jet printers

produce high-quality text and graphics.

 Laser: Uses the same technology as copy machines.

Laser printers produce very high quality text and graphics.
 LCD & LED: Similar to a laser printer, but uses liquid
crystals or light-emitting diodes rather than a laser to
produce an image on the drum.

 Line printer: Contains a chain of characters or pins that

print an entire line at one time. Line printers are very fast,
but produce low-quality print.

 Thermal printer: An inexpensive printer that works by

pushing heated pins against heat-sensitive paper. Thermal
printers are widely used in calculators and fax machines.

Printers are also classified by the following characteristics:

 Quality of type: The output produced by printers is said

to be either letter quality (as good as a typewriter), near
letter quality, or draft quality. Only daisy-wheel, ink-jet,
and laser printers produce letter-quality type. Some dot-
matrix printers claim letter-quality print, but if you look
closely, you can see the difference.

 Speed: Measured in characters per second (cps) or pages

per minute (ppm), the speed of printers varies widely.
Daisy-wheel printers tend to be the slowest, printing about
30 cps. Line printers are fastest (up to 3,000 lines per
minute). Dot-matrix printers can print up to 500 cps, and
laser printers range from about 4 to 20 text pages per
minute.

 Impact or non-impact: Impact printers include all

printers that work by striking an ink ribbon. Daisy-wheel,
dot-matrix, and line printers are impact printers. Non-
impact printers include laser printers and ink-jet printers.

20
 The important difference between impact and non-impact
printers is that impact printers make physical contact with
the paper and are much noisier whereas non impact printers
do not make physical contact and are too noisy.

 Graphics: Some printers (daisy-wheel and line printers)

can print only text. Other printers can print both text and
graphics.

2.3.4.3 Plotter – hardcopy output

 A Plotter is also a printer that produces hard copy output.
Plotters produce high quality color graphics output by using
pens for creating images.
 Plotters help to draw maps from stored data. Plotters are ideal
for Engineering, Drafting and many other applications that
require intricate graphics.

2.3.4.4 Speaker – voice output

 Speaker is an electro-acoustic transducer that converts
electrical signals into sounds loud enough to be heard at a
distance.
 It is used in computer system to produce sound or voice
output.
 The sound is input from external world into computer system
via microphone and is output to external world via speaker.

2.3.4.5 Robot – physical output

 Robot is the most intriguing output device.
 Robotic device consists of arms that can perform a
preprogrammed task.
 Robots are mostly used in manufacturing tasks such as spray
painting or assembling parts.
 Advanced robots are used in scientific research such as space
and undersea exploration.

2.4 Software Component

 Software is the set of instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task.
 Computer software is a set of step-by-step instructions given to the computer in
the form of programs or procedures or routines in order to accomplish any
specified task or to process the raw data and convert it into meaningful
information.
 software is the intelligence of the computer. Software is “Soft” because you can’t
touch the instructions, the way you touch the computer equipment – the “hard”
ware.
 If software is stored on non-volatile storage such as integrated circuits, it is
usually referred to as firmware.

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2.4.1 System software
 System software is a generic term referring to any computer software
that is an essential part of the computer system.
 An operating system is an obvious example, while device driver and
language software are less obvious examples.

2.4.1.1 Operating system

 An operating system (OS) is a computer program that
manages the hardware and software resources of a computer.
 OS performs basic tasks such as controlling and allocating
memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling input and
output devices, facilitating networking, and managing files.
 It also may provide a graphical user interface for higher level
functions.
 The operating system is considered as the boss of the whole
system.
Basic functions of operating system are:

o input /output management

 Controls spooling and buffering, multitasking and overlapping,
time sharing and network.

o memory management
 Control the allocation of RAM for various purposes like
background and foreground program execution priorities and
virtual memory system.

o file management
 Under which files are stored on secondary storage devices,
where can be copied, sorted, displayed and removed among
other functions.

o job control (process scheduling)

 Which include executing programs on demand from the user
using utilities and other programs, and developing batch
programs of command statement for automatic execution for
the OS function?

2.4.1.2 Device driver

 Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to

know how to control every device, both now and in the future.

22
  To solve this problem, operating systems essentially dictate
how every type of device should be controlled.
 The function of the device driver is then to translate these OS
mandated function calls into device specific calls.
 In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner,
should function correctly if a suitable driver is available.
 This new driver will ensure that the device appears to operate
as usual from the operating systems' point of view.
 device driver is a type of system software that introduces a
new device to the operating system and facilitates the
communication between the operating system and the device.

2.4.1.3 Language software

 Languages are used for writing instructions or software.
 Can be
o Machine Language
 Machine language is the only language the computer directly understands.
 It is in the form of strings of binary numbers.
 A machine language instruction has at least two parts:
o opcode – function code which specifies the function performed and
o operand address – which specifies location of data and other instructions

o Assembly Languages
 Assembly language is easier to use than machine language.
 It is done by representing some of the most commonly used instruction codes
with some symbols.
 But it needs special translating program.
 It is machine dependent.

o High Level Languages

 High level languages resemble some human languages such as English and
are easier for human programmers to write.
 It allows users to write in a familiar notation, rather than numbers or
abbreviations.
 It includes application and system development languages, report generators,
or AI system development languages.
 Most of high level languages are machine independent.
E.g. FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal, C, C++, Java …

 Language translators
 The translator for high level languages is either a compiler or an interpreter.
 However, code written using assembly language is translated to machine
language by a program called assembler.
 Compiler and interpreter are discussed as follows:
Compiler – execute later:

23
  A compiler is a language translator that converts the entire program of a high
level language into machine language before the computer executes the
program.
 The programming instructions of a high level language are called source
code. The compiler translates it into machine language, which in this case is
called the object code.
 The object code can be saved. Thus, it can be executed later (as many times as
desired).
E.g.: FORTRAN, Pascal, C, C++, and Java.
Interpreter – execute immediately:
 An interpreter is a language translator that converts each high level language
into machine language and executes immediately, statement by statement.
 No object code is saved, as with compiler.
 Therefore, interpreted code generally runs more slowly than compiled code.
However, code can be tested line by line
E.g. BASIC and Visual Basic

2.4.1.4 Utility software

 Utility Programs are generally used to support, enhance or
expand existing programs in a computer system.
 Examples of utility programs are
 Backup – to duplicate the data or information for safety.
 Data Recovery – to restore data that is physically damaged
or corrupted.
 Virus Protection – Antivirus software which will eliminate
viruses from affected files or protect files from being
infected from viruses.
 Data Compression – used to compress huge files and save
memory storage.

2.4.2 Application software

 Application software, consists of are programs that help the end-
user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as word processing
or image manipulation. Basically, there are four categories of
application software.
 Productivity Software: The purpose of this software is to
make the users more productive at performing general
tasks. For example, word processing, spread sheets,
presentation, database managers, accounting etc.
 Home / Personal software: The purpose of this software is
mainly for domestic and personal use. For example, cook
books, medical guide, gardening, etc.

24
 Education / Reference software: The purpose of this
software is mainly to learn any subject or to refer for
additional information.
For example: Encyclopedia, Dictionaries, and Computer
Based Tutorials (CBT), etc.
 Entertainment software: The purpose of this software is
for entertainment and time passing. For example games.

25
 Chapter – 4
Data Communications and Computer Networks
Objective:-
❖ To know basic component used in data transmission
❖ To know, what a computer network is and different protocols of networks
❖ To know what is Internet and what services the Internet has

Basics of Data Communication

Data communication: is the process of sharing ideas, information and messages with others in a
particular time and place.
- It is exchange of data between two or more parties.
- It includes :
o Writing and talking
o Nonverbal communication (such as facial expressions, body language or gestures)
o Visual communication (the use of images of pictures such as painting, photography, video
or film)
o Electronic Communication
o Such as telephone calls, electronic mail, cable television, satellite broadcasts.
Data Transmission
The need of information has increased from time to time. This leads to the need of sharing of
information among different agents (individual), which may be at different places or locations.
Data communication is the exchange of information between two agents. For exchange of
information, the information should be transmitted from one point to another through a
transmission media called Channel. The following figure shows the different components of
data communication.
Agent Input Transmi Transmissi Receiver Output
1 device 2 er 3 on medium 4 5 device 6

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tt
 Source System Destination system

1. Input information (m)

2. Input data q or signal q(t)
3. Transmitted signal s(t)
4. Received signal r(t)
5. Output data q or signal q (t)
6. Out put information m
Information is transmitted in a form of packets the information is divided into packets and one
packet is transmitted at a time. When a packet of information is transmitted the sender must be
sure that the receiver receives the information and the receiver must check that it receives correct
information. The information is transmitted successfully the receiver must send an
acknowledgment to the sender.
Mode of transmission
The transmission medium may be physical (it connects the transmitter and receivers through
wire) or logical (There are different mode of transmission)
➢ Simplex transmission:
In this transmission, signals are transmitted in only one direction: One station is transmitter and
the other is receiver.
➢ Half-duplex transmission
In this transmission signals are transmitted in both directions, both stations may transmit, but
only one at a time.
➢ Full-duplex transmission
In this transmission signals transmitted in both directions, both stations may transmit
simultaneously. The medium carries signals in both directions at the same time.
Data Transmission Channels
A channel is a medium that carries a signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The range of
frequencies that can be transmitted over a transmission medium is called band Width of a
channel. The rate of data transmission is directly proportional to the band width.
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 There are three types of data transmission channels:-
A. Narrow-band:-It is the smaller band and has slow data transmission rate. E.g. telegraph
line.
B. Voice- band: It is the wider band and has better data transmission rate than the narrow band.
Ex telephone lines are used for voice-band channel.
C. Broad-band: - It is the widest band and has used to transmit large volume of data with high
speed.
Ex. (Oxide cable such as TV aerial lead), circuits, communications sate bites and optical fibers
are used for broad band channels.
Information is transmitted in the form of analog or digital. Most communication lines are
designed to carry analog signals. Digital transmissions are used for telecommunications.
Therefore, technique must be used to represent a digital signal in analog carrier. The process of
modifying the carrier signal to transmit digital information is called “Modulation”. When the
transmitted signal is received, the information must be reconverted into digital data. This
process is called “Demodulation” .These conversions between digital data and analog data are
handled by a device called a modem, an acronym for modulator and demodulator.
Types of signals
In communication system, data is transmitted from one point to another by means of electrical
signal. There are two types of signals that can travel over the various transmission media.
1. Analog Signal: Continuously varying electromagnetic waves that may be propagated over a
variety of media. For example, Wire media, twisted pair and coaxial cable.
2. Digital Signals
- Normally, it comprises only two states.
- It uses separate ON/OFF pulses that create a square rather than a continuous wave.
- Are considered as sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wire
medium.
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 - Transmits data faster and more accurately than analog signals.
For example, a constant positive voltage level may represent binary 1 and a constant negative
voltage level may represent binary 0.
Computer Networks
It is a collection of computers and peripheral devices connected by communication links that
allow the network components to work together.
Importance of Networking
1. Resource sharing ( To share hardware such as the server To share computer CPU and
hard disk)
2. To share databases
3. To share application programs
4. To undertake parallel processing
5. High reliability by having alternative sources of supply.
6. Money saving
7. Increase system performance.
8. Powerful communication medium among widely separated people.
Hardware requirements of a computer network
1. Computers
- A minimum of two computers is required to establish a computer network.
2. Network Interface Card/Network Adapter Card
- It is an expansion card that physically connects a computer to the network.
- Each computer in the network must have a network card.
- It takes the data from the computer’s internal bus and converts it into standard packets of
information that it then sends along the cable.
- It takes the data from the computer and adds header.
- When receiving data, it looks at each packet and checks the destination address in the
header.
- If it recognizes its own address, it checks that it has no errors and signals the CPU that
there is data to be processed.
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 3. Cables
- Cables are used to physically connect the computers on the network
- Types of cables
i. Co-axial cables
ii. Twisted Pair Cables
iii. Fiber Optics
4. Modem- Modulator/Demodulator
- It lets computers exchange information though telephone lines.
- When transmitting information, the modulator changes the computers digital signal to
analog signal.
- When receiving information, the demodulator translates the analog signal
- Back to a digital signal.
Modulator – Digital to Analog
Demodulator – Analog to Digital
Terms used in computer networking
1. Server – Computers that provide shared resources to network users.
2. Clients- Computers that access shred network resources provided by a server.
3. Media – The wires that make the physical connections
4. Shared data- Files provided to clients by servers across the network.
5. Shared printers and other peripherals– Additional resources provided by the server
6. Resources- Any service or device, such as files, printers or other items.
Types of Networks
Based on geographical span of coverage, computer networks are broadly classified into three
major categories.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
• Computers are connected close together to each other with in the same ‘local’ area( ex.
building, office, school ,Lab …)
• computers are connected directly on-premises -usually through wiring and sometimes with
infrared signals (similar to your TV remote control) or low-powered radio signals
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 • It is the basic building block of any computer network.
• It is confined in a limited geographical area.
Characteristics of LAN:
1. Physically limited
2. High bandwidth
3. Inexpensive cable media (Co-axial or twisted pair)
4. Used for data and hardware sharing
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Covers large geographic areas
• Uses Fiber Optics cables
For example: Colleges, Universities, banks etc.
3. Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• Communication is established through telephone lines, microwave links and satellites etc.
• It has no geographical limit
• It is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. E.g. The internet
• The computers are attached spread apart geographically such as a state, the country, or the
world
• Computers in a network are situated in a wider geographical area.
• It may contain a number of local area network
• uses external communication facilities such as phone lines, cable, television lines, or satellite
transmission to carry data over longer distance
How to connect
• On-demand connection: a phone line that has a dial tone and can be accessed as needed
• Dedicated communication connection-connected at all times
Internet
• Internet international network of networks (WAN) that provides access to a vast array of
information stored in computer systems throughout the world.
• world wide interconnection scheme for accessing various computer networks from other
computers
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 • It is a network of networks.
Based on the architecture, networks are divided into two broad categories:
1. Peer-to-peer Networks
2. Server –based Networks
The type of network you choose to implement depends on
i. Size of the organization
ii. Level of security required
iii. Level of administrative support available
iv. Amount of network traffic
v. Needs of the networks use
vi. Network budget

1. Peer-to-peer Networks
In the peer-to-peer configuration, only two computers are directly connected by cable
and one computer can directly access the resources located in the other computer.
• No dedicated server
• Every computer acts as both a client and a server
• Good for 10 or few users
• Less security
• User at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the network., also called
work groups
• all computers on the network belong to users and are equal as far as the network is concerned
• Computers simply connect with each other in a workgroup to share files, printers and Internet
access.
• This is most commonly found in home configurations and is only practical for workgroups of a
dozen or less computers
2. Server-Based
• In the workgroup configuration, more than two computers are connected but the maximum number
of computers is not greater than ten.
• In server based, one computer can directly access the resources located in other computer provided
that the other computer gives permission to use the resources.
• There is usually a Server Machine to which all of the computers log on
• This server can provide various services, including
7|Page

 – centrally routed Internet Access,
– mail (including e-mail),
– file sharing and printer access,
– ensuring security across the network.
• Supports large number of users
• Needs dedicated server (acts only as a server, but not as a client)
• Security is an issue
• Size is limited by a server and network hardware
• Requires at least one professional administrator.

Network Topology
• Topology: specifies the geometric arrangement of the network. Common topologies are:
bus, ring, star, mesh
• The physical topology of a network refers to the layout of cables, computers and other
peripherals.
• Logical topology is the method used to pass the information between the computers

8|Page


 • Protocol: Specifies a common set of rules and signals the computers on the network use to
communicate.
• Protocols define the format, timing, sequence, and error checking used on the network.
• Common Protocols are:
– TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
– IP: Internet Protocol
– UDP: User Datagram Protocol
– FTP: File Transfer protocol
– HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

Standard Topologies
1. Bus Topology
• All workstations are connected directly to the main backbone that carries the data.
• Consists of devices connected to a common, shared cable.
• Traffic generated by any computer will travel across the backbone and be received by all
workstations
• This works well in a small network of 2-5 computers
• As the number of computers increases so will the network traffic and this can greatly
decrease the performance and available bandwidth of your network
• Is used for a Local Area Network
• Is the simplest
• Messages are detected by all nodes and are accepted by the nodes to which they are
addressed.
• Relies on collision detection or token passing to regulate traffic.
• If one node fails, the rest of the network can continue to function normally.

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 Advantages of Bus Topology
- Easy to implement
- Low cost
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
- Limited cable length and workstation
- Difficult to isolate network fault.
- Cable fault affects all workstations
2. Star Topology
• One of the most common network topologies found in most offices and home networks
• Becomes very popular in contrast to the bus type (which we just spoke about), because of
the cost and the ease of troubleshooting.
• Cable segments from each computer (node) are connected to a centralized component
called a hub.
Hub - is a device that processes and switches the messages from one incoming line to another.
- Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on
the network.
- Failure of one computer doesn’t affect the network
- Failure of the hub affects the network
- Cabling cost is high

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 Advantage of Star Topology
- Easy to add new workstations
- Centralized control
- Centralized network
- Easy to modify
- if one computer on the star topology fails, then only the failed computer is unable to send
or receive data
Disadvantages of Star Topology
- Hubs are expensive
- Each computer is connected to a central hub or switch, if this device fails, the entire
network fails!

3. Ring Topology
• Computers are connected on a single circle of cable.
• Unlike the bus topology, there are no terminated ends.
• signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer
• The method by which the data is transmitted around the ring is called token passing
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 • A token is a special series of bits that contains control information
• Each computer acts as a repeater to boost the signal and send it to the next computer.
• Failure of one computer can have an impact on the entire network.
• Allows signals to travel farther by regenerating signals
• Cable failures affect limited users.
• Logically, a ring topology is a circular arrangement of computers where the signals from

one node travel around the ring in clockwise direction .Because the signals pass through
each computer, the failure of one computer or a break in a cable could bring the entire
network failure.

4. Mesh Topology
• Each computer is connected to every other computer by a separate cable.
• Provides redundant paths through the new work

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 Hybrid Topology Types

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 Transmission Cables
• The kind of cable or other medium that is used to connect the various computers in a
network
• Common types:
– Twisted-pair wire,
– Coaxial cable, and
– Fiber optic cable
1. Twisted-pair wire
• Is a copper wire similar to the common telephone line
• each of the pair of wire are twisted
• It can be Shielded (STP) or Unshielded (UTP)
• UTP:
– the most popular cable around the world
– used not only for networking but also for the traditional telephone

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 2. Coaxial cable
• A type of wire that consists of a center wire surrounded by insulation and then a grounded
shield of braided wire.
• The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference.
• more expensive than standard telephone wire much less susceptible to interference and can
carry much more data
3. Fiber Optic Cables
• can be used over greater distances
– 2km without the use of repeaters.
– one fiber could replace hundreds of copper cables
• high bandwidth
• Low loss of signals
• The diameter could be millionths of a meter.
Comparison

Brief Introduction to Internet

Sometime in the mid 1960's, during the Cold War, it became apparent that there was a
need for a bombproof communications system.
A concept was devised to link computers together throughout the country. With such a
system in place large sections of the country could be linked and messages could still get
through.

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 Basically the Internet was an emergency military communications system operated by the
Department of Defense's Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA). The whole
operation was referred to as ARPANET.
In time, ARPANET computers were installed at every university in the United States that
had defense related funding. Gradually, the Internet had gone from a military pipeline to a
communications tool for scientists. As more scholars came online, the administration of
the system transferred from ARPA to the National Science Foundation.
Years later, businesses began using the Internet and the administrative responsibilities
were once again transferred.
At this time no one party "operates" the Internet, there are several entities that "oversee"
the system and the protocols that are involved.
The speed of the Internet has changed the way people receive information. It combines
the immediacy of broadcast with the in-depth coverage of newspapers...making it a
perfect source for news and weather information.
About the Web
Think of the web as the illustrated version of the Internet. It began in the late 1980's when
a Swiss physicist Dr. Berners-Lee wrote a small computer program for his own personal
use. This program allowed pages, within his computer, to be linked together using
keywords. It soon became possible to link documents in different computers, as long as
they were connected to the Internet. The document formatting language used to link
documents is called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language.)
The Web remained primarily text based until 1992. Two events occurred that year that
would forever change the way the Web looked. Marc Andreesen developed a new
computer program called the NCSA Mosaic (National Center for Supercomputing
Applications at the University of Illinois) and gave it away! The NCSA Mosaic was the
first Web browser. The browser made it easier to access the different Web sites that had
started to appear. Soon Web sites contained more than just text, they also had sound and
video files.

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 These pages, written in the hyper-text markup language, have "links" that allow the user
to quickly move from one document to another...even when the documents are stored in
different computers.
Web browsers "read" the html text and convert it into a page like the one you see on the
browser windows.
Each web site has an address, or Uniform Resource Locator (URL). The URL contains a
set of instructions that are read by the browser.

The beginning of the URL contains the protocol. This is usually "http" (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol) or "ftp" (File Transfer Protocol). The second section of the URL
reveals the domain. Directories follow the domain. Lastly is the name of the document.
(If no document is named the browser will automatically open any document in the
directory named "default" or "index."
Internet Services:
• E-mail transfer
• USENET
• World Wide Web (WWW, Web, W3)
• File transfer/access (FTP)
• Remote login/ execution (Telnet)
• Video Conferencing
E-mails
Even with the multimedia excitement of the Web, Electronic Mail (email) is the most
frequently used application of the Internet. Many people who have access to the Internet
at school, home, and work, use the Internet for no other purpose than to send and receive
email.
According to International Data Corporation (IDC), on an average day in the year 2000,
5.1 billion emails are sent in the US and 8.2 billion worldwide. By 2005, 11.5 billion
emails are sent each day on average in the US and 26.1 billion worldwide. (This includes
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 emails sent by individuals for business and personal purposes, but not mass emails sent to
large lists.)
It's all very easy. You create the message, log onto the Internet, and send it. The message
first goes to your Internet Service Provider's mail server, which in turn sends it to the
recipient's mail server. On the way your message may go through several servers, each
reading the domain name in order to route it to the appropriate server.
The message then remains in the recipient's mail server until he requests it by "checking
his mail."
Each email address you send is made up of certain components that help route it to the
proper recipient:
• Every user, which belongs to the network, has his/her account and computer system
that provides the account.
• To send a message
– User name: identifies the sender or the recipients.
– Domain name: identifies the computer system on which the user has an
account.
Examples: [email protected]

Country or type
[email protected] Ins tu on

User Name

Domain Name

The benefits of email are obvious...mostly it's quick. Also, many people feel that the rules
for regular mail don't apply to email*, making it less formal, which in turn makes email
easier to compose and send.
It's not just friends and coworkers that are receiving email. Wherever you look, the Web
is providing email addresses. This has made communication between strangers easier
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ti
ti
 than ever. When you visit a Web site, click on the Web masters email address to let them
know what you think. You can read an interesting article online and immediately send the
author an email.
World Wide Web (WWW)
• Is one of the newest Internet services
• The WWW allows you to combine text, a video, graphics, and even animation to make a
document a viewed easy.
• Links within WWW documents can take you quickly to other related documents. WWW is
a set of sites that you can go o for information.
• The process of sharing common information of the world by the help of the Internet
services.
• It requires special software programs like Netscape, Internet Explorer, or others.
• Web Browsers
For Example: http://www.cnn.com
Use Net
• It is one of the Internet services which allow users from any where on the Internet to
participate a discussion groups (News groups). It is an organized electronic mail (e-mail)
system, except there is no single user that mail is sent to.
• A world wide distributed discussion group consists of a set of newsgroups.
• Articles or messages are posted to news groups and the articles are then broadcasted to
other interconnected computer systems.
Telnet:- It is a program that lets you log into a remote computer directly through the Internet
and you can work on that computer.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• This enables you to examine the files of remote hosts on the Internet and to transfer files
between your hosts and the others.
• Using FTP programs we can upload or download files. But to do this there should be an
admission from the remote computer.
• Helps to transfer files and programs from one system to another.
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 Video Conferencing
• The internet is, in its raw form, communication.
• Video conferencing means making a conference on the internet by individuals who live
in different locations.
• The individuals speak and see each other.
• It is similar to conference in a hall except they are at distant.

Ethical and social issues in the information age

Though the advantage of information technology outweighed the disadvantage, there are some
issues that come as a result of information technology.
Ethics
Responsibility and accountability
Privacy
❖ Property rights to information and intellectual property.
❖ The right of an individual to be left alone and control the flow of information about
himself or herself.
System quality
❖ Integrity of a system (avoiding malfunctioning)
Quality of work life
❖ Job satisfaction
❖ Responsibility
❖ Variety
❖ Challenge
Health and safety
❖ Stress
❖ Computer vision syndrome

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 IT in the future:
Predicting the future is always risky business. But some things are relatively certain. In the next
five to ten years the following will be some of the developments in information technology.
❖Network convergence- TV, radio, the Internet and the telephone system into a single
integrated network. Why not we use TV to watch video, switch channels and surf the
Internet, switch channels again and listen to some music on an FM radio station, and
then switch channel again and write a term paper?
❖Wireless mobile computing (handheld)- a new generation of wireless digital devices that
combine computing and two-way communication capabilities
❖Inexpensive supercomputer

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 Chapter-5
Computer Security
Introduction to Computer Security
Security: The prevention and protection of computer assets from unauthorized access,
use, alteration, degradation, destruction, and other threats.
• Computer systems should have a set of protection policies to restrict and control the
system resources
• Considering:
– Unauthorized access
– Malicious modification or destruction
– Accidental introduction of inconsistency
Security Goals
• Data Confidentiality
– It is concerned with having secret data remain secret
• Data Integrity
– Unauthorized users should not be able to modify any data without the owners
permission
– Includes removing data and adding false data
• System Availability
– Means nobody can disturb the system to make it unusable
Security is thus based on the following independent issues:
• Privacy - the ability to keep things private/confidential
• Trust - do we trust data from an individual or a host? Could they be used
against us?
• Authenticity - are security credentials in order? Are we talking to whom?
We think we are talking to, privately or not.
• Integrity - has the system been compromised/altered already?

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 Why Computer Security?
Computer security is required because computer systems are vulnerable to many threats
that can inflict various types of damage resulting in significant losses. This damage can
range from errors harming database integrity to fires destroying entire computer centers.
There may be several forms of damage, which are obviously interrelated. These include:
• Damage or destruction of computer systems.
• Damage or destruction of internal data.
• Loss of sensitive information to hostile parties.
• Use of sensitive information to steal items of monetary value.
• Use of sensitive information against the organization's customers, which may
result in legal action by customers against the organization and loss of customers.
• Damage to the reputation of an organization.
• Monetary damage due to loss of sensitive information, destruction of data, hostile
use of sensitive data, or damage to the organization's reputation.
• Losing the ability to use the system
Security Threats
A threat is a potential violation of security. The effects of various threats vary
considerably: some affect the confidentiality or integrity of data while others affect the
availability of a system.
A computer security threat can be any person, act, or object that poses a danger to
computer security. Generally, environments can be hostile because of
• Physical threats - weather, natural disaster, bombs, power failures, etc.
• Human threats - stealing, trickery, bribery, spying, sabotage, accidents.
• Software threats - viruses, Trojan horses, logic bombs, denial of service,
trap door.

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 1. Fraud and Theft
Computer systems can be exploited for both fraud and theft both by "automating"
traditional methods of fraud and by using new methods. For example, individuals may
use a computer to skim small amounts of money from a large number of financial
accounts, assuming that small discrepancies may not be investigated. Financial systems
are not the only ones at risk. Systems that control access to any resource are targets (e.g.,
time and attendance systems, inventory systems, school grading systems, and long-
distance telephone systems). Insiders or outsiders can commit computer fraud and theft.
Insiders (i.e., authorized users of a system) are responsible for the majority of fraud.
Since insiders have both access to and familiarity with the victim computer system
(including what resources it controls and its flaws), authorized system users are in a
better position to commit crimes. Insiders can be both general users (such as clerks) and
technical staff members. An organization's former employees, with their knowledge of an
organization's operations, may also pose a threat, particularly if their access is not
terminated promptly.
2. Loss of Physical and Infrastructure Support
The loss of supporting infrastructure includes power failures (outages, spikes, and
brownouts), loss of communications, water outages and leaks, sewer problems, lack of
transportation services, fire, flood, civil unrest, and strikes.
3. Malicious Hackers
The term malicious hackers, sometimes called crackers, refer to those who break into
computers without authorization. They can include both outsiders and insiders. Much of
the rise of hacker activity is often attributed to increases in connectivity in both
government and industry. One 1992 study of a particular Internet site (i.e., one computer
system) found that hackers attempted to break in at least once every other day. The
hacker threat should be considered in terms of past and potential future damage. Although
current losses due to hacker attacks are significantly smaller than losses due to insider
theft and sabotage, the hacker problem is widespread and serious.

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 4. Threats to Personal Privacy
The accumulation of vast amounts of electronic information about individuals by
governments, credit bureaus, and private companies, combined with the ability of
computers to monitor, process, and aggregate large amounts of information about
individuals have created a threat to individual privacy. The possibility that all of this
information and technology may be able to be linked together has arisen as a specter of
the modern information age.

5. Malicious Code
Malicious code refers to viruses, worms, Trojan horses, logic bombs, and other
"uninvited" software. Sometimes mistakenly associated only with personal computers,
malicious code can attack other platforms.
• Viruses
– “A small program that replicates and hides itself inside other programs usually
without your knowledge.”
– It gets attached to some part of an operating system or any other computer
program.
– It may attach itself to any executable code, including but not limited to boot
sectors and /or partition sectors of hard and/or floppy disks.
– A computer virus can perform:
• corrupt or destroy data
• increase file size
• format the hard disk
• degrade system performance
• manipulate the directory contents
• rename all files with different name

Types of viruses
A. Multi-Partite

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 • A virus that attempts to attack both the boot sector and the executable, or

program, files at the same time.

• When the virus attaches to the boot sector, it will in turn affect the system’s

files, and when the virus attaches to the files, it will in turn infect the boot
sector.
• Such viruses are highly infectious.

B. Companion Virus
• A virus which infects executable files by creating a ‘companion’ file with the

same name but an .COM extension.

• Since DOS executes .COM files, followed by .EXE files, and finally .BAT

files, the virus loads before the executable file.

C. Boot sector or MBR virus
• A virus which infects the boot sector of disks

Boot sector
• Hard disk drives, floppy diskettes, and logical drives (partitions) all have boot

sectors where critical drive information is stored.

Master Boot Record
• On all PC fixed disks, the first physical sector is reserved for a short bootstrap

program. This sector is the master Boot (MBR).

D. Stealth Virus
• A computer virus that actively hides itself from antivirus software by either

masking the size of the file that it hides in or temporarily removing itself
from the infected file and placing a copy of itself in another location on the
drive, replacing the infected file with an uninfected one that it has stored on
the hard drive.
• A stealth virus is one that conceals the changes it makes
• A stealth virus is programmed as such that it is able to conceal itself from

discovery or defends itself against attempts to analyze or remove it

E. Macro Virus

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 • A macro virus is a virus written in one of the many macro languages.
• The macro viruses spread via infected files, which can be documents,

spreadsheets, databases, or any computer program which allows use of a

macro language.
• At present these viruses can infect Microsoft Word and Lotus Ami Pro

documents.
• This virus attaches itself to a word processing or spreadsheet file(mainly

Microsoft Word or Excel file)

F. Trojan (Trojan Horse)
• A Trojan (or Trojan Horse) is a program which carries out an unauthorized

function while hidden inside an authorized program.

• It is designed to do something other than what it claims to, and frequently is

destructive in its actions

• Seemingly innocent program contains code to perform an expected and

undesirable action
• Code segment that misuses its environment
• Exploits mechanisms for allowing programs written by users to be executed

by other users
G. Worm
• An independent program that reproduces by copying itself from one computer

to another
• Worms are self-contained and generally use networks to spread.
• Self replicating program

6. Denial of Service
– Blocking access from legitimate users
– Overload the targeted computer preventing it from doing any useful work
7. Trap door
– Created by code inserted into system by a system programmer to bypass some
normal checks

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 – Specific user identifier or password that circumvents normal security procedures
Security Solutions
There are a number of basic ways that a computer can be made more secure.
1. Backups (redundancy)
Just about everyone who has used a computer system has experienced losing important
data in some kind of accident. There are many reasons why data get lost: it might be due
to carelessness or natural disaster. The purpose of a backup is to make a copy of data,
which is unlikely to be lost or destroyed by the same act as the original.
In older times, backups of disks were always made to tape. Tape was chosen because it is
a relatively cheap medium, which is easily transported. If we want a backup to be
protected from the same accident that would destroy the original, we have to store it in a
different physical location. Today, the economics of backup have changed and data can
often be mirrored to a disk at a different physical location, by using network copying.
Tapes are relatively unreliable, so they have low security compared to disks. Operating
systems have different preferred ways of making backups, using different software and
media. Some things are common to all systems however.
The key principle of backups is redundancy. Redundancy means making multiple copies
of data, so that we always have something to fall back on. We can have backups of data,
but we can also have backup of services, in case we lose an important piece of hardware.
Redundancy is like an insurance policy.
Clearly, making backups of every file is a time-consuming process, and it requires a lot of
storage. There are two kinds of backup
• Full dump: copies every file on a source medium to a backup medium.
• Incremental or differential dump: copies files according to the level of the
dump. A level 0 dump copies everything. A level 1 dump copies everything,
which has changed since the last level 0 dump. A level 2 dump copies everything
which has changed since the last level 1 dump or level 0 dump and so on. (i.e. all
levels which are lower)

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 2. Encryption
The term encryption refers to the practice of obscuring the meaning of a piece of
information by encoding it in such a way that it can only be decoded, read and
understood by people for whom the information is intended. It is the process of encoding
data to prevent unauthorized parties from viewing or modifying it.
Encryption is said to occur when data is passed through a series of mathematical
operations that generate an alternate form of that data; the sequence of these operations is
called an algorithm. To help distinguish between the two forms of data, the unencrypted
data is referred to as the plaintext and the encrypted data as ciphertext. The security of
encryption lies in the ability of an algorithm to generate ciphertext that is not easily
reverted to the original plaintext.
Common Uses of Encryption
Authentication
Authentication is the process of logging in, signing on or otherwise presenting
information or oneself in a manner that proves his or her identity. The most common
example of authentication is the use of a username and password to gain access to a
system, network or web site. The username and password combination is often referred to
as a person’s credentials and it is frequently sent over networks. Encryption is used to
protect these credentials. If no encryption is used to protect the information as it is sent
over the network, an attacker could capture those credentials and assume the identity of
the originator.
Validation
Validation describes the ability to provide assurance that a sender?s identity is true and
that a message, document or file has not been modified. Encryption can be used to
provide validation by making a digital fingerprint of the information contained within a
message. A digital fingerprint is a code that uniquely identifies a file or a message by
reflecting the content of the file with tremendous specificity.
Data Protection

8

 Probably the most widely used application of encryption is in the area of data protection.
Encryption of files protects the data that is written to the hard disk on the computer. This
information protection is vital in the event of theft of the computer itself or if an attacker
successfully breaks into the system. However, file encryption becomes more difficult to
use and manage if the office has multiple employees. Because each employee needs the
encryption key, protection of the key becomes a more difficult task. The more people who
have access to encryption keys, the less effective encryption becomes. The risk of loss,
theft or compromise of information rises as the number of users increases. Files that have
been encrypted are also vulnerable to employees who leave the organization or who are
disgruntled and may want to cause the organization harm.
3. Remedy for Viruses
Organizations and single-users should establish some kind of internal routines for data
handling, for running a virus free computing environment. To prevent viruses from
entering a system there are two options.
– Isolate the machine: to avoid the virus entering into the computer
– Disconnect it from the Internet or any other network
– Not using floppy disks, CD-ROMs or any other removable disks.
– Install an Antivirus program.
– Antivirus is software utility, which (upon installing on a computer)
searches the hard disk for viruses and removes which are found.
– Popular antivirus software programs available are Norton and McAfee Antivirus
programs

Functions of anti-viruses
o Identification of known viruses
o Detection of suspected viruses
o Blocking of possible viruses
o Disinfection of infected objects
o Deletion and overwriting of infected objects
Computer security controls/Making the system Secure
• Authentication
– Using passwords, smart card, fingerprint
• Anti-virus
– Scan the system using anti-virus software

9

 • Firewall
– Limits network access b/n trusted and untrusted hosts
• Encryption
– Encrypt clear text to cipher text
– .

10