CPU:-

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the primary component of a computer that acts
as its “control center.” The CPU, also referred to as the brain of the computer or
“central” processor, is a complex set of electronic sircuitry that runs the machine’s
operating system and apps. The CPU interprets, processes and executes instructions,
most often from the hardware and software programs running on the device.

❖PARTS OF CPU
➢Arithmetic logic unit ( ALU )
oPerforms arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division)
and logical (AND, OR, NOT, XOR) operations .
➢Control unit ( CU )
oDirects the operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory,
ALU, and input/output devices how to respond to the instructions
sent to the processor.
➢Registers
oSmall, fast storage locations within the CPU used to hold data
temporarily during processing.
Computer Memory Unit
A computer system memory or storage unit maintains
instructions, data and intermediate outcomes . It acts as a
database that other computer components may access and save
data in as needed . Computer memory is just like the human brain.
It is used to store data /information and instructions. It is a data
storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be processed
and instructions required for processing are stored. It can store
both the input and output can be stored here.

Types of Memory
➢Primary memory
•Primary memory, also known as main memory or internal memory, is
a computer's working memory and is the part of the computer
 that the CPU can access directly . RAM is referred as primary
memory, RAM is a Volatile memory that temporarily stores data
that the CPU needs to access quickly .

➢Secondary memory
•Secondary memory is non-volatile, meaning it stores data
permanently, and is not immediately accessible by the
computer's processor. It's also known as secondary storage or
auxiliary storage . It’s a Non-volatile memory that stores data
permanently or until deleted .

COMPONENTS PRESENT INSIDE A PC CABINET

Motherboard
 Processor

RAM

SSD
 Power
Supply

Graphics Card
 CPU Cooler

THE FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE CYCLE

➢Fetch
•The CPU fetches the instruction from memory. The address of the instruction
is stored in the Program Counter (PC). The instruction is fetched from
memory and stored in the Instruction Register (IR).
➢Decode
•The control unit decodes the fetched instruction to determine what ac on is
required. The decoded instruction signals the necessary steps to be taken
(e.g., which opera on the ALU should perform).
➢Execute
•The decoded instruction is then executed. The ALU performs the required
opera on, such as arithmetic calculations or logical operations. The result
is stored in the relevant register or memory location.
➢Store
•The result of the execution is stored in memory or sent to an output device,
depending on the instruction.
DATA FLOW IN COMPUTER SYSTEM
➢Input
•Data is entered into the system through an input device (e.g.,
keyboard).
➢Processing
•The CPU processes the input data. During this stage, data might be
temporarily stored in registers or RAM, processed in the ALU, and
then sent back to memory.
➢Output
•The processed data is then sent to an output device (e.g., monitor) to
display the results.
➢Storage
•If the data needs to be saved for future use, it is written to a storage
device (e.g., hard drive).

INPUT DEVICE
An input device is a hardware component used to send
data and instructions to a computer. It allows users to
interact with the computer by entering information, which
the system then processes. Examples of input devices
include keyboards, mouse, scanners, and microphones.
1. Keyboard: A keyboard is one of the most
common input devices, used to enter text, numbers, and commands into a
computer. Each key on a keyboard has a specific character or function. When a key
is pressed, it completes a circuit, sending a signal to the computer that
corresponds to the specific key. The CPU interprets this signal and translates it into
the appropriate character or command (e.g., a letter, number, or control
command).

2. Mouse: A mouse is a pointing device that allows

users to interact with a graphical interface by moving a cursor on the screen. In an
optical mouse, a light-emitting diode (LED) shines light onto a surface, and a small
sensor detects changes in the surface as the mouse moves. These changes are
translated into cursor movement. In a mechanical mouse (less common today), a
rubber ball on the bottom rotates as the mouse moves, triggering sensors that
detect movement. Mouse typically have buttons for selecting items and a scroll
wheel for navigating documents or pages.
 3. Scanner: A scanner captures images or text
from physical documents and converts them into digital form, allowing the data to
be stored, edited, or processed by a computer.
a. The document is placed on the scanner's glass surface, and a light source
illuminates it.
b. The light reflects off the document and is captured by sensors that convert
the image or text into a digital signal.
c. This digital representation is then sent to the computer, where it can be
saved or manipulated.
Types: Flatbed scanners (for documents and images) and specialized scanners (like
barcode scanners and handheld scanners).

4. Microphone: A microphone captures sound waves and

converts them into an electrical signal that the computer can process.
Sound waves hit a diaphragm in the microphone, causing it to vibrate. These
vibrations are converted into an electrical signal.
An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) then converts this electrical signal into digital
data, which the computer can process and store.

OUTPUT DEVICE
An output device is a hardware component that receives data from a computer and
converts it into a form that can be understood by users or other systems. Output
devices are essential for presenting processed data and information to the user in a
usable format. Output devices play a crucial role in how users interact with and
receive information from a computer, enabling effective communication and
presentation of data.

1. Monitors: These display visual output from

the computer, such as the user interface, videos, and graphics. Monitors come
in various types, including LCD, LED, and OLED.

2. Speakers: Speakers convert digital audio signals into

sound, allowing users to hear music, system alerts, and other audio outputs
from the computer.

3. Projectors: Projectors display visual

output onto larger surfaces, such as screens or walls, making them suitable for
presentations, movies, and educational purposes.
4. Plotters: These are specialized printers that produce
high-quality graphics, drawings, and designs, often used in engineering and
architectural applications.

STORAGE DEVICES
A storage device is a hardware component used to store and retrieve digital data
in a computer or electronic system. These devices can hold a wide range of data
types, including files, applications, and system software. Storage devices are
essential for maintaining data persistence, as they retain information even when
the power is turned off. Storage devices play a vital role in data management,
enabling users to save, access, and share information effectively. Here are the
main types of storage devices:

1. Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): HDDs use spinning magnetic

disks to read and write data. They provide a large storage capacity at a
relatively low cost but are generally slower than solid-state drives.

2. Solid State Drives (SSDs): SSDs use flash

memory to store data, offering faster data access speeds and improved
durability compared to HDDs. They are becoming increasingly popular for
both personal and enterprise storage solutions.
3. External Hard Drives: These are portable storage devices
that connect to a computer via USB or other interfaces, allowing users to
back up data or transfer files between systems.

4. USB Flash Drives: Also known as thumb drives or pen drives,

these compact, portable storage devices use flash memory and are
commonly used for data transfer and backup.

5. Memory Cards: Used in cameras, smartphones, and

other portable devices, memory cards provide removable storage for photos,
videos, and applications.

6. Network Attached Storage (NAS): NAS devices

are connected to a network, allowing multiple users and devices to access
and share data over a local area network (LAN) or the internet.

7. Optical Discs: CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are used for
storing data, audio, and video. They are read using optical drives and are
often used for media distribution.
8. Cloud storage: Cloud storage is a service that enables users to
store and manage data on remote servers accessed via the internet, rather
than on local devices like hard drives. It offers several benefits, including
accessibility from any device with an internet connection, scalability to
easily adjust storage capacity, and automatic backup and recovery options
that protect against data loss. Cloud storage facilitates collaboration by
allowing users to share files and folders easily, often with real-time editing
capabilities. Additionally, it is cost-effective, operating on a subscription
model, and reputable providers implement strong security measures, such
as data encryption and access controls, to safeguard user data. Popular
cloud storage solutions include Google Drive, Dropbox, Microsoft OneDrive,
iCloud, and Amazon S3, each providing various features for efficient data
management.