MATERIALS FOR FABRICATION OF SENSORS

CHEMICAL SENSORS

 A chemical sensor is a device that transforms chemical information

(composition, presence of a particular element or ion,
concentration, chemical activity, partial pressure…) into an
analytically useful signal.
 The chemical information, mentioned above, may originate from a
chemical reaction of the analyte or from a physical property of the
system investigated.
 They can have applications in different areas such as medicine,
home safety, environmental pollution and many others.
Schematic representation of a chemical sensor

Receptor
Transducer
Chemical sensors usually contain two basic components connected in
series: a chemical (molecular) recognition system (receptor) and a
physicochemical transducer. In the majority of chemical sensors, the
receptor interacts with analyte molecules. As a result, its physical
properties are changed in such a way that the appending transducer can
gain an electrical signal

Primary Signal Secondary Signal

Electrochemical, Electrical
Optical, Mass and
Thermal
 Receptor

 The function of the receptor is fulfilled in many cases by a thin

layer which is able to interact with the analyte molecules, catalyze a
reaction selectively, or participate in a chemical equilibrium together
with the analyte.
 The receptor layer can respond selectively to particular substances
or to a group of substances.
 The term molecular recognition is used to describe this behavior.
 Among the interaction processes, the most important for chemical
sensors are adsorption, ion exchange and liquid-liquid extraction.
Primarily these phenomena act at the interface between analyte and
receptor surface.
 Transducer

 Signals are processed almost exclusively by means of electrical

instrumentation.
 Accordingly, every sensor should include a transducing function, i.e.
the actual concentration value, a non-electric quantity must be
transformed into an electric quantity, voltage, current or resistance.
 Some of them develop their sensor function only in combination with
an additional receptor layer. In other types, receptor operation is an
inherent function of the transducer.
 Gas Sensor

 Gas sensor is a subclass of chemical sensors that measures the

concentration of gas in its vicinity.
 Gas sensor interacts with a gas to measure its concentration. Each
gas has a unique breakdown voltage i.e. the electric field at which it is
ionized.
 Sensor identifies gases by measuring these voltages. The
concentration of the gas can be determined by measuring the current
discharge in the device.

Eg. Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas sensor

 Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas sensor

 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas that is formed

during respiration, combustion, and organic decomposition.
 Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring combustion
processes, environmental CO2 emission levels, indoor air quality, the
function of the lungs in medical procedures, and for a wide variety of
applications in many industrial sectors including agri-food,
pharmaceutical, brewing, beverage, and refrigeration.
 Carbon dioxide is typically measured using nondispersive infrared
(NDIR) or electrochemical technology. Improvements to NDIR-based
carbon dioxide sensors have made it the most common solution for
measuring CO2 concentrations with better accuracy across extremely
wide ranges up to 100% volume.
 The Non Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) detection method is based upon
the absorption of infrared radiation at specific wavelengths as it
passes through a volume of sample.
 Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) techniques for the measurement of
various gases rely on the energy absorption characteristics of a
particular gas in the infrared region.
 In a simple NDIR instrument, Infrared energy passes through two
identical tubes and falls on a detector.
 The first tube is the reference cell and is filled with a non-absorbing
gas such as nitrogen.
 The second tube is the measurement cell and contains the gas sample
to be analyzed.
 The IR Source continuously sends an IR waves through the gas tubes
and detector measures the intensity of two different wavelengths,
one at the sample gas absorption wavelength and the other is at
reference gas absorption wavelength.
 As the reference gas generally contains nitrogen so the detector
receives 100% signal. If the CO2 gas is present in sample gas means
the received signal will be attenuated at the detector side.
 The detector measures these two signals and their difference is
proportional to the amount of absorbing gas in the sample cell .i.e. CO2
gas.
 Finally the CO2 gas concentration is measured with the difference in
absorption of IR radiation in the sample and reference cells. CO2 gas
concentration measuring unit is ppm.

Applications of Gas Sensor:

 CO2 sensors are used to monitor fermentation, respiration,

photosynthesis, and other carbon dioxide consuming or producing
processes.
 They can be used for HVAC (Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)
applications to monitor air quality.
 There are wider applications for CO2 sensors in the agricultural, food,
pharmaceutical, refrigeration and brewing sectors.
 Potentiometric MOSFET gas sensors

Potentiometric MOSFET gas sensors are a type of chemical sensor that

utilizes metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors
(MOSFETs) to detect gases. These sensors operate based on the
principle that the conductance of the MOSFET channel is altered by
the interaction of gas molecules with the surface of the semiconductor
material.
Eg. Hydrogen sensitive Pd (or Pt) —Si —SiO2 gas sensitive
potentiometric MOSFET (gate electrode) sensor
 Hydrogen sensitive potentiometric MOSFET sensor

 The sensor consists of a silicon substrate on which a thin layer of

silicon dioxide (SiO2) is grown or deposited. On top of the SiO2 layer,
a thin film of palladium or platinum is deposited. This metal layer acts
as the sensing element for hydrogen gas.
 When hydrogen gas comes into contact with the palladium or platinum
layer, it diffuses into the metal and forms a hydride phase.
 Some of the hydrogen atoms diffuse through the thin metal film and
are adsorbed onto the metal—insulator interface.
 An equilibrium between the number of adsorbed hydrogen atoms on
the surface and those at the interface.
 Hydrogen atoms adsorbed at the interface (and on the surface) are
polarized and give rise to a dipole layer.
 The dipole layer at the interface corresponds to a voltage drop (∆V,
hydrogen would dissociate and diffuse through to the interface,
causing a shift in the threshold voltage Vth), which is added to the
externally applied voltage, VG. By using a constant current source to
drive the transistor ΔV = ΔVth.

 By measuring the threshold voltage of the MOSFET, the

concentration of hydrogen gas in the environment can be determined.
This measurement can be correlated with the amount of hydrogen
present.
 Biosensor
Definition of a biosensor

“A biosensor is a device that detects, records, and transmits biological

or biochemical information by converting it into an analytically useful
signal.”
 These devices typically consist of a biological sensing element, which
can be an enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, or whole cell, coupled with a
transducer that converts the biological response into an electrical,
optical, or mass-based signal.
 The biological sensing element interacts with the target molecule or
analyte of interest, leading to a measurable change that is then
transduced into a signal.
 Biosensors are widely used in various fields, including medical
diagnostics, environmental monitoring, food safety, and bioprocessing.
They offer advantages such as high sensitivity, specificity, and rapid
detection, making them valuable tools in research and practical
applications.
Elements of a Biosensor
 Components of Biosensor
SAMPLE: The biological component or analyte which is under study.
TRANSDUCER: A transducer is more generally defined as a device
which converts energy from one form to another. Which is combination
of,
 BIORECEPTOR: The sensitive biological element a biologically derived
material or biomimetic component that interacts (binds or recognizes)
the analyte under study.
 ELECTRICAL INTERFACES: The detector element (works in a
physicochemical way; optical, piezoelectric, electrochemical, etc.) that
transforms the signal resulting from the interaction of the analyte
with the biological element into electrical signal form.
ELECTRONIC SYSTEM: Combination of electronic devices i.e.
Amplifier, signal processer and display device that are primarily
responsible for the display of the results in a user-friendly way.

Working of Biosensor

 A biosensor operates by first recognizing a specific biological or

biochemical target through its sensing element, such as an enzyme or
antibody, leading to a measurable change in properties like
conductivity or optical characteristics.
 This change is then transduced by a component of the biosensor,
typically a transducer, into an electrical, optical, or mass-based
signal.
 Signal processing may occur to enhance sensitivity and accuracy, with
the final output displayed or recorded for interpretation. This
process enables rapid and selective detection of target analytes,
making biosensors valuable in medical diagnostics, environmental
monitoring, and other fields.

Working of Biosensors based on:

1. LINEARITY: Linearity of the sensor should be high for the
detection of high substrate concentration.
2. SENSITIVITY: Value of the electrode response per substrate
concentration.
3. SELECTIVITY: Chemicals Interference must be minimized for
obtaining the correct result.
4. RESPONSE TIME: Time necessary for having 95% of the response.
 Wearable-ring sensor
Need for a wearable biosensor
 Remote monitoring of patients.
 Training support for athletes.
 Monitoring of individuals who work with hazardous elements.
 Tracking of professional truck driver’s vital signs to alert them of
fatigue.
What is wearble biosensor?
Wearable Biosensor = Wearable + Biosensor
Biosensor

Wearable  Biosensor is an analytical

device used for detection of
 Object that can be worn on body.
analyte.
 e.g. wrist watches, ring, shirts etc.
 e.g. Blood Glucose Detector
 Wearable monitoring devices that allow continuous monitoring of
physiological signals.
 They rely on wireless sensors enclosed in items that can be worn,
such as ring or shirt.
 The data sets recorded using these systems are then processed to
detect patient’s clinical situations.
 Biosensor is an analytical device, which converts a biological response
into electrical signa
 Components of wearable biosensors

Biosensor Three main components of wearable biosensors are:

Biological element: For sensing the presence and concentration of a
substance.
Transducer: The product of interaction of biological component and
sample may be a suitable chemical, charge etc., which can be converted
by transducer into an electrical signal.
Associated Electronic Devices: The electrical signal may be further
amplified and can be read on digital panels.
 Ring Sensor

 It is a pulse oximetry, i.e. it monitors the oxygen saturation.

 It is based on the concept of photoconductor.

Principles :-
 Blood pressure pulse causes vessel wall displacement.
 Detection pulsatile blood volume changes by photoelectric method by
photo resistor.
 Connected as a part of voltage divider circuit and produces a voltage
that varies with the amount of blood in the finger.
 Working of Ring Sensor

 Blood volume in the finger changes with the heart muscle expansion
and contraction.
 This blood volume changes can be easily detected by photoelectric
methods.
 Light is emitted by LED and transmitted through the artery and the
resistance of photo resistor is determined by the amount of light
reaching it.
 Optical density of blood depends on the blood volume.
 Oxygenated blood absorb more light than deoxygenated blood.
 If the blood volume increases, optical density increases, light
transmission through finger reduces & the resistance of photo
resistor increases.
 Thus the voltage generated by photo resistor varies with the amount
of blood in the finger. A noise cancellation filter is used to cancel the
noise due to motion of the finger.
 Block diagram of ring sensor is presented here.
 Applications
 Wireless supervision of people during hazardous operations.
 In an overcrowded emergency department.
 Chronic surveillance of abnormal heart failure.
 In cardio-vascular disease for monitoring the hyper tension.
Advantages
 Continuous monitoring.
 Easy to use.
 Reducing hospitalization fee
Disadvantages
 Initial cost is high.
 Limited number of physiological parameters can be monitored
 DNA microarray chips
 Also termed as DNA chips, gene chips, DNA arrays, gene arrays and
biochips.
 DNA microarray is one of the molecular detection techniques which is
a collection of microscopic characteristics (commonly DNA) affixed to
a solid surface.
 DNA microarrays are solid supports usually made up of glass or silicon
upon which DNA is attached in an organized pre-arranged grid design.
 Each spot of DNA, termed as probe, signifies a single gene.
 DNA microarrays can examine the expression of tens of thousands of
genes concurrently.
 There are 2 types of DNA microarray i.e. cDNA based microarray and
oligonucleotide based microarray.
Principle of DNA microarray

 The principle of DNA microarrays lies on the hybridization between

the nucleic acid strands.
 The property of complementary nucleic acid sequences is to
specifically pair with each other by forming hydrogen bonds between
complementary nucleotide base pairs.
 For this, samples are labeled using fluorescent dyes.
 At least two samples are hybridized to chip.
 Complementary nucleic acid sequences between the sample and the
probe attached on the chip get paired via hydrogen bonds.
 The non-specific bonding sequences while remain unattached and
washed out during the washing step of the process.
 Fluorescently labeled target sequences that bind to a probe sequence
generate a signal.
 The green light is a gene expressed in normal cells; red is a mutated
gene expressed in tumor cells; and yellow, in both cells.
 The signal depends on the hybridization conditions (ex:
temperature), washing after hybridization etc., while the total
strength of the signal, depends upon the amount of target sample
present.
 Using this technology the presence of one genomic or cDNA sequence
in 1,00,000 or more sequences can be screened in a single
hybridization.
Applications
 Drug discovery
 Study of functional genomics
 DNA sequencing
 Gene expression profiling
 Study of proteomics
 Diagnostics and genetic engineering
 Toxicological researches
 Pharmacogenomics and theranostics
Limitations of DNA microarrays
 The results take a lot of time to analyze as the amount of data
collected from each array will be huge
 The results may be too complex to interpret and are not always
quantitative
 The results are not always reproducible
 The technology is too expensive
 The arrays provide an indirect measure of relative concentration
 IR touchscreens

 Infrared touchscreen technology is a type of touch-sensitive display

technology that uses infrared light to detect the presence of a touch
input on the screen.
 It works based on the interruption of infrared light beams projected
across the surface of the screen.
 An infrared touch screen consists of an LCD monitor, IR touch frame,
infrared touch overlay.
 The overlay is a piece of protective glass hemmed in by the IR touch
frame, in which Infrared LEDs and photodetectors are embedded. A
kind of optical bezel will be inserted between the glass and the frame
to fix the frame and transmit infrared light emitted by those LEDs.
 Through the optical bezel, IR LEDs emit invisible infrared beams
forming grids on the surface of the overlay, Photodetectors are
installed across from the LEDs to detect interruptions of beams if
touch events on the overlay happen.
Working of Infrared Touchscreen:

The infrared touchscreen works by detecting interruptions of infrared

beams emitted by LEDs embedded in the frame around the touchscreen
overlay.
There are two rows of IR LEDs, which generate horizontal and vertical
invisible IR beams. They form a large beam grid that covers the surface
of the overlay. In the meantime, two rows of photoreceptors are
installed on the opposite side of the LEDs.
 As long as an opaque object touches the surface, it will blot out the
light beams. Photoreceptors in both directions (vertical and
horizontal) can detect this interruption by that object, and finally
localize the x and y coordinates, and then send the signal to the
processor to respond with relevant action.
Advantages

Durability: Since there are no layers on the screen to wear out or

become damaged with use, infrared touchscreens tend to be more
durable than other types of touchscreens.
Accuracy: Infrared touchscreens can offer high levels of accuracy in
touch detection, allowing for precise input and recognition of small touch
points.
Multi-touch Support: Many infrared touchscreen systems support multi-
touch input, enabling users to perform gestures such as pinch-to-zoom
or rotate.
Transparency: Infrared touchscreens can be overlaid on displays
without interfering with the display's clarity, making them suitable for
applications where maintaining high visual quality is important.
Limitations

Limited in Bright Environments: Infrared touchscreens may struggle

to perform optimally in very bright environments where ambient
infrared light can interfere with the detection of touch inputs.
Lack of Surface Hardness: Unlike capacitive touchscreens, which can
be protected with hard glass covers, infrared touchscreens are
typically less resistant to scratches and damage.
 IR sensor
An infrared (IR) sensor is a device that detects infrared radiation in its
surroundings.
Principle of Operation:
 IR sensors typically consist of an emitter and a receiver. The
emitter emits infrared radiation, while the receiver detects the
radiation and generates an electrical signal in response.
 When an object enters the field of view of the sensor, it may
reflect or emit IR radiation. The receiver detects changes in
the intensity or presence of IR radiation, which indicates the
presence or absence of an object.

IR Transmitter or IR LED
IR Receiver or Photodiode
Types of IR Sensors and Applications
 Passive Infrared (PIR) Sensors: These sensors detect changes in
IR radiation emitted by or reflected from objects in their field
of view. PIR sensors are commonly used in motion detection
applications, such as security systems and automatic lighting.
 Active Infrared Sensors: These sensors emit IR radiation and
detect the reflection of that radiation from nearby objects.
They are often used in proximity sensing applications, such as
object detection in industrial automation and robotics.
 Thermal Infrared Sensors: These sensors measure the
temperature of objects by detecting the thermal radiation they
emit. They are used in applications such as temperature
measurement, thermal imaging, and infrared thermography.
Applications of wireless sensors
1. Industrial and Commercial Uses:
 Inventory Tracking – RFID
 Automated Machinery Monitoring
2. Smart Home or Smart Office:
 Energy Conservation
 Automated Lighting
3. Military Surveillance and Troop Support
 Chemical or Biological Weapons Detection
 Enemy Troop Tracking
4. Traffic Management and Monitoring
5. Biomedical / Medical
 Health Monitors: Glucose, Heart rate and Cancer detection.
 Chronic Diseases: Artificial retina and Cochlear implants.
 Hospital Sensors: Monitor vital signs and Record anomalies.
Glucometer sensor (test strips)

The sensor used has an electroenzymatic approach, which means that it

takes advantage of glucose oxidation with a glucose oxidase enzyme.
The presence of glucose oxidase catalyzes the chemical reaction of
glucose with oxygen, which causes an increase in pH, decrease in the
partial pressure of oxygen, and increase of hydrogen peroxide because
of the oxidation of glucose to gluconic acid:
 The test strip measures changes in one or several of this components
to determine the concentration of glucose.
 The strips used in this design have three terminals or electrodes
• Reference electrode • Working electrode • Trigger electrode

 A negative voltage of –0.4 V is applied at the reference electrode.

 When blood or a glucose solution is placed in the strip, a chemical
reaction occurs inside it, generating a small electrical current
proportional to the glucose concentration.
 This current is constantly monitored while the strip is in place,
allowing the device to monitor when blood is placed.
 After the chemical reaction stabilizes, 5 s, the voltage is read by the
ADC and compared using a look-up table to obtain the proportional
glucose value in mg/dL.
 This value is sent to the host computer to inform the glucose value.
 Pulse oximeter
A pulse oximeter operates on the principle that oxygenated and
deoxygenated hemoglobin molecules absorb light differently at specific
wavelengths. The device emits light, usually red and infrared, through a
pulsating arterial bed, such as a fingertip. A photodetector on the
opposite side measures the intensity of the transmitted light.
 Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more infrared light and allows more
red light to pass through, while deoxygenated hemoglobin absorbs
more red light and allows more infrared light to pass through.
 By comparing the intensities of red and infrared light, the pulse
oximeter calculates the ratio of oxygenated hemoglobin to total
hemoglobin, determining the blood oxygen saturation level (SpO2) and
pulse rate.
 This information is displayed in real-time on the device's screen,
providing a non-invasive and convenient method for monitoring oxygen
levels in the blood.