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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Mao for personal use only.
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| 2 | 142 | | | |----|----|----|----| | 2 | 71 | Remainder: | 0 | |

1. Data Representation 2 | 35 | Remainder: | 1 | | 2 | 17 | Remainder: | 1 | | 2 | 8

| Remainder: | 1 | | 2 | 4 | Remainder: | 0 | | 2 | 2 |
Remainder: | 0 | | 2 | 1 | Remainder: | 0 | | | 0 |
1.1. Number Systems Remainder: | 1 |

Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is

Binary System divided by the previous value of the current number and
1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
Base 2 number system number
It has two possible values only (0 and 1) When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
MSB (Most Significant Bit)
Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
Denary System
Separate each value from each other and convert them
Base 10 number system to denary
Has values from 0 to 9 Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
All the binary values to be merged together
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) e.g.
Base 16 number system Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Denary : 2 1 15 13
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
which is F
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
| Binary Value | Hexadecimal Value | Denary Value | |----|---
-|----| | 0000 | 0 | 0 | | 0001 | 1 | 1 | | 0010 | 2 | 2 | |
0011 | 3 | 3 | | 0100 | 4 | 4 | | 0101 | 5 | 5 | | 0110 | 6 | 6
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
| | 0111 | 7 | 7 | | 1000 | 8 | 8 | | 1001 | 9 | 9 | | 1010 | A Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
| 10 | | 1011 | B | 11 | | 1100 | C | 12 | | 1101 | D | 13 | | right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
1110 | E | 14 | | 1111 | F | 15 | until it reaches 4
For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
1.2. Number Conversions and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
Converting Binary to Denary A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the order to get the final answer
power of the number of values from the right starting
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
like this: When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101

| 128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 | |----|----|----|----|----|---- After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 11

|----|----| | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from
left to right Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
4 + 2 = 238

Converting Denary to Binary

Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
table like follows:

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Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
convert the final answer to denary or the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal being emptied is going to become 0

Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to Explanation with Example
hexadecimal as explained above
Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
1.3. Binary Calculations 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
Binary values are not added the way denary values are removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two have been removed)==
because it doesn’t exist in binary. 2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
Points to Note: in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)
0+0=0
1+0/0+1=1 Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) Two’s complement is a method used to represent
negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
Overflow Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is
called overflow. Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
space to store the answer to the addition done in the the third position from the right.
previous part. Now, switch every value to the left of the first one
located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in
Steps to add Two Values (With Example) our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
complement of itself.
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 Converting negative values to two complement
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
left-hand side to match them). Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Convert the binary value to two’s complement
2. Add the values as follows with the points given Make the MSB 1, if not already
above
Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
| Carry | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | | |----|----|----|----|----|--
--|----|----|----|----| | Byte 1 | | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
Byte 2 | | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | | OVERFLOW | | | | from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
| | | | | | Solution | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the:
Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,
we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit | -128 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 1 | |----|----|----|----|----|----
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is |----|----| | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
overflow. -128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70

iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System
Logical Shifts

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Examples:
ASCII uses one byte to store the value
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to
uniquely identifies a device on a network) 0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a
Assembly languages and machine code character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.
Memory Dumps
Debugging (method to find errors in a program)
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory
location of the error)
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses
Unicode
Memory Dumps
ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
when trying to trace errors. The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
to a printer or monitor. multiple languages and more data.
To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) character set, a collection of characters and the
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code corresponding binary codes that represent them.
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
less error-prone than binary. Sound
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
values and is prone to errors.
form, it is sampled
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
1.5. Text, Sound and Images where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
ASCII
How is Sound Recorded
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control set time intervals
codes The value is converted to digital form
Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
values series of binary digits
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. A series of readings gives an approximate representation
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1) of the sound wave
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
follows: Sampling Resolution:
[ ] 0 is at 48 The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
[ ] A is at 65 resolution (aka bit depth)
[ ] a is at 97 Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored
about the amplitude of the sound.
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
store the data.

Sampling Rate

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| Name of memory size | No. of Bytes | Equivalent Denary
The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken Value | |----|----|----| | 1 kibibyte (1KiB) | 2¹⁰ |
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz) 1 024 bytes | | 1 mebibyte (1MiB) | 2²⁰ | 1 048
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound 576 bytes | | 1 gibibyte (1GiB) | 2³⁰ | 1 073
as fewer estimations will be done between samples. 741 824 bytes | | 1 tebibyte (1TiB) | 2⁴⁰ | 1 099
511 627 776 bytes | | 1 pebibyte (1PiB) | 2⁵⁰ |
Images 1 125 899 906 842 624 bytes |

Bitmap Images Conventional System

Bitmap images are made up of pixels | Name of memory size | No. of Bytes | Equivalent Denary
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of Value | |----|----|----| | 1 kilobyte (1KB) | 10³ |
binary numbers 1 000 bytes | | 1 megabyte (1MB) | 10⁶ | 1 000
000 bytes | | 1 gigabyte (1GB) | 10⁹ | 1 000
Colour Depth 000 000 bytes | | 1 terabyte (1TB) | 10¹² | 1
000 000 000 000 bytes | | 1 petabyte (1PB) |
The number of bits representing each colour is called the
10¹⁵ | 1 000 000 000 000 000 bytes |
colour depth.
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one Calculation of File Size
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256)
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
being black) (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would
when storing an image. then multiply the result by two.)

Image Resolution
1.7. File Types
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that
make up an image; for example, an image could contain Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
4096 × 3072 pixels. Storage of music files
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail
A communications protocol that allows electronic
than those with a higher resolution. musical instruments to interact with each other
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
as being pixelated. Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the
compared to low-resolution ones. MIDI device what function to perform
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
1.6. Measurement of the Size of (operates on 16 different channels)
Computer Memories Examples of MIDI commands:
Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
8 bits is a byte (loudness of music)
4 bits is a nibble It needs a lot of memory storage
Byte is used to measure memory size MP3
IECB System (Most Common)

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It uses technology known as Audio Compression to It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format (e.g. repeated colours in an image)
This compression reduces the normal file size by 90% A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first
Done using file compression algorithms, which use value represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
Perceptual Music Shaping characters), and the second value represents the code of
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
properly character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the 98 02 99 05 100.”
quality, too much RLE is only effective where there is a long run of
CD files are converted using File Compression Software repeated units/bits
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
compression algorithm strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
MP4 every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05
100 where 255 now indicates that the next character/set
than just sound
of characters is approaching
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored
Videos could be streamed without losing any real
discernible quality
Lossy File Compression

Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file It is impossible to get the original file back once it is
sizes compressed
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of Reduces file quality
pixels per centimetre In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file reduced.
size is reduced
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
between 5 and 15 2. Data Transmission
1.8. Lossless and Lossy File 2.1. Types and Methods of Data
Compression Transmission
Lossless File Compression Data Packets
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
again when the file is uncompressed.
Important for files where the loss of data would be
disastrous (spreadsheet)
An algorithm is used to compress data
No data is lost
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes

Run-Length Encoding

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Packet Structure -
Header 2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
receiver USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
USB consists of:
The sequence number of the packet
Four-wire shielded cable
Size of the packet
Payload Two wires are used for power and earth
Contains the actual data Two wires are used in data transmission
Trailer | Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Automatically
Includes a method of identifying the end of the detected | Transmission rate is less than 120 MB/sec | |
packet Only fit one way, prevents incorrect connections | Maximum
Error-Checking methods cable length is about 5 metres | | Different data
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where transmission rates | | | Backwards compatible | | |
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are Industry-standard | |
then sent independently from start to end and
reassembled at the receiver’s computer.
2.3. Methods of Error Detection
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | There is no need
to create a single line of communication | Packets may be Parity Checks
lost | | Possible to overcome failed or busy nodes | More
prone to errors in real-time streaming | | High data It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
transmission speed | Delay at the receiver while the packets Type Types -
are being re-ordered | | Easy to expand package usage | | Even - Even number of 1-bits
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Data Transmission Example (Even Parity) -

Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g. | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |----|----|----|----|----|----|----|---

computer to printer) -|
Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but
The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number
not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions <center><b>Limitations with Parity Checks</b></center>
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone Two bits may change during transmission; therefore
line) error is not found
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors,
time over a single wire
the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time. Parity Blocks
Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data
Transmission
| Serial | Parallel | |----|----| | Better for longer distances
(Telephone Lines) | Better for short distances (Internal
circuits) | | Cheaper Option | Expensive (More hardware
required) | | Used when the size of data transmitted is small
| Used when speed is necessary | | Slower Option | Faster
than Serial |

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To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
would be used. user received the data
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
again.
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.

Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows 2.4. Encryption
and columns
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
Checksum unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
other attackers.
Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
would calculate the checksum value using a specific Plaintext and Ciphertext
algorithm.
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would Plaintext is the original data that is being sent
Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
and the same algorithm used before.
The receiver would then compare the value received and
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A Symmetric Encryption:
request is made to re-send the data. It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting
Echo Check the data.
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the Asymmetric Encryption:
data back to the sender for verification. Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
The sender would compare the received and original available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
available to the user.
data for errors.
The receiver would have the private key, and they
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
occurred when sending the data or sending the data would send the public key to the sender. The sender
back for verification. can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data can be decrypted using the private key.
Check Digits
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
3. Hardware
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
the code. 3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
6372 typed as 6379
Neumann Architecture
8432 typed as 842
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
computer systems

~~The CPU consists of the following architecture:~~

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Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and 1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
Logic Unit (ALU) fetched
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
the memory, processor and input/output devices 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like temporarily
calculations 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
timing signals on the control bus the next instruction to be fetched
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
types. Stored Program Concept
Address bus – unidirectional Instructions are stored in the main memory
Data Bus – bi-directional Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by
Control Bus – bi-directional the processor
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU
Memory Concept
~~The following registers also exist in the
architecture:~~ A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
| REGISTER | ABBREVIATION | FUNCTION | |----|----|----| |
CIR | Current instruction register | Stores the instruction the | MEMORY LOCATION | CONTENT | |----|----| | 10101010 |
CPU is currently decoding or executing | | MAR | Memory 01010110 |
address register | Stores the Address of the instruction, Instruction Set:
copy it, and sends it to MDR | | MDR | Memory data register An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU
| Stores the Data from the address received from the MAR can process, and the commands are machine code
and sends data to CIR | | PC | Program counter | Stores the
address of the next instruction to be fetched from memory | 3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
| ACC | Accumulator | During calculations, data is
temporarily held in it | System’s Clock
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed
for.
It leads to multiple issues.
The Fetch-Execute Cycle
Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer
would frequently crash and become unstable)
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU

Length of Data Buses

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of
the computer

Cache
Cache memory is located within the CPU itself

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-- allows faster access to the CPU
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance dimensional image
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
performance magnetic, white light)
The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
Cores Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
model
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
performance Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
the system performance as the communication between represent the passport pages
each core increases, and so do the data cables between Text can be stored in ASCII format
each. Which in turn reduces the potential system The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
performance. stored as jpeg image
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
septa or octa cores. camera and compared to using face recognition software
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
eyes, width of nose)
3.3. Input Devices
Barcode readers/scanners
Two-dimensional Scanners:
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
Used to input hard-copy documents varying thicknesses
The image is converted into an electronic form, which The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
can be stored in the computer series of lines
The document is placed on a glass panel The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
A bright light illuminates the document using guard bars
A scan head moves across the document until the Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect
The lens focuses on the document image little light, which allows the bars to be read
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
circuits
The software produces a digital image in the Quick Response (QR) Codes
electronic form Another type of barcode is the QR codes
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
converts scanned documents into a text file format
background
If the original document was a photo/image, then the
Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG Advantages of QR codes:
Three-dimensional Scanners No need for the user to write down the website
address
QR codes can store website addresses

Digital Cameras

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It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the Capacitive (medium cost tech)

shutter speed, focuses the image, etc. Made up of many layers of glass
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
onto a light sensitive cell When the top layer of glass is touched, electric
The cell is made up of pixels current changes
The number of pixels determines the size of the file Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
determined by an on-board microprocessor
Keyboards Infra-red heat (expensive)
Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by Use glass as the screen material
wireless connection Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a Infra-red optical (expensive)
Uses glass as screen material
digital signal
Slow method Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Prone to errors Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
touched
Pointing devices Resistive (inexpensive)
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of
Mouse/trackball glass
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement bottom layer complete a circuit
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
Microphones microprocessor to determine where the screen was
Used to input sound to a computer touched
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm Sensors
vibrates, producing an electric signal
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
digital values and stored in a computer
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
digital

Touchscreens

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Devices that read or measure physical properties The light sensor sends data to the ADC
Data needs to be converted to digital The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical Microprocessor samples data every minute
values into digital If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Sensors and their purposes: Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Lamp switched on
converts sound to electric pulses.
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's 3.4. Output Devices
acceleration or deceleration and motion.
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. Inkjet Printers
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any
gas in the environment. Used to print one-off pictures and documents
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Data from the document sent to the printer driver
the air or any sample. The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, available
it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
detector. memory (printer buffer)
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
emitted by any object. available in the paper tray
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
level. four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
generate electric current based on light brightness. Repeated until the buffer is empty
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
magnetic field. processor (request for more data to be sent)
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
content wherever this sensor has been installed. Laser Printers
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. Used to print flyers, high quality
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects produce text and images
around the sensor Prints the whole page in one go
Temperature - These sensors measure the
temperature of the environment.
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)

Control of Street Lighting­­

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1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet) The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it; threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
removing the positive charge leaves negatively LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
charged areas which match the text/image because:
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
drum has a yellow tint
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum LEDs improve the colour image
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
produce a copy of the page LEDs consume very little power
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from which supplies the light source
the drum, ready to print on the next page
<span class="underline">Light Projectors:</span>
3D Printers
Two common types of light projectors:
Used for models of cars Digital Light Projector (DLP)
Produce solid objects that work LCD Projector
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic Projectors are used to project computer output onto
powder larger screens/interactive whiteboards
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
2D and 3D Cutters
Uses millions of micromirrors
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction the number of micromirrors and the way they are
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of
the image
Actuators When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
processes. When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
Used in many control applications involving sensors and they are off
devices (ADC and DAC) This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
Loudspeakers/Headphones on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from LCD Projectors
the loudspeaker
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies
LCD and LED Monitors

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Older technology than DLP RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and
A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb access data that is actively being used or processed by
This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic- the user immediately.
coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different Features of RAM
wavelengths Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light turned off)
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue Used to store; data, files
These three different lights pass through three LCD It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
screens; these screens show the image to be projected the memory can be changed
as millions of pixels in grayscale The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, will operate
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto slow
the screen As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
new data
RAM is of two types:

DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Virtual memory
Primary vs. Secondary Storage When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with
The CPU directly accesses primary storage memory management; thus, the system has a high
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples into the picture.
HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these
examples storages are discussed below)

<span class="underline">Primary Memory:</span>

Random Access Memory (RAM)

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There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the

same time (not like HDD)
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
More reliable (no moving parts)
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
Very thin
You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above. Data access is faster than HDD
The main advantages of virtual memory are Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
They can be larger than the physical memory
provided in the RAM. <span class="underline">Off-Line Storage:</span>
Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could CD/DVD Disks
be expensive
Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the
The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused surface of the disk.
data.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Read Only Memory (ROM) Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
Features of ROM DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain capacity (two individual recording layers)
even when ROM is turned off)
Used to store start-up instructions (basic Blu-ray Disks
input/output systems)
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
cannot be changed
(stores up to five times more data than DVD)
<span class="underline">Secondary Storage:</span> Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
Hard Disk Drives (HDD) piracy and copyright infringement)
Used as backup systems
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
of the disks (platter) USB Flash Memories
A number of read/write heads can access all of the
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files
surfaces of the disk Small back-up devices for photo, music
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care
store the data
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks Cloud Storage:
HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is
Solid-State Drive (SSD) stored on remote servers
The same data is stored on more than one server in case
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.

The following are its types:

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Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the systems
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different | Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Small in size,
companies therefore can easily fit into devices | Can be difficult to
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated upgrade | | Low cost to make | The interface can be
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client confusing sometimes | | Requires very little power |
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate Troubleshooting is a specialist’s job | | Very fast reaction to
as a single entity changing input | Often thrown away as difficult to upgrade
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above and faults are harder to find | | Dedicated to one task only |
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, Increased garbage as they are thrown away | | Can be
and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed controlled remotely | Any computerised system is prone to
from a public cloud storage provider attacks |

Applications of Embedded devices

GPS systems
Security Systems
Vending Machines
Washing Machines
Oven
Microwave
3.6. Embedded System
3.7. Network Hardware
A combination of hardware and software is designed to
carry out a specific set of tasks. Network Interface Card (NIC)
Embedded systems may contain -
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to
peripherals on one single chip connect to a network (such as the Internet).
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O Media Access Control (MAC)
ports, storage and memory
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
Process of Embedded Devices -
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
(ADC needed if the data is analogue) serial number.
Data from the user interface is also sent to the
microprocessor These do not change and are primarily constant for every
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators device
which are the output there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
need a software update. Administered MAC Address (LAA)
Programmable devices have two methods of updating
Connecting the device to a computer and The only difference between the two types is that UAA is
downloading the update made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi opposite for LAA.
link
IP Addresses

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IP address allocation: Router functionality:

The network allocates IP addresses. A router is a networking device that directs data
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic. packets between different networks.
Static IP addresses: It determines the most efficient path for data
Assigned manually to a device. transmission.
Does not change over time. Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
Dynamic IP addresses: A router examines the destination IP address of
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host incoming data packets.
Configuration Protocol) server. It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or
Changes periodically or when the device connects to the next router on the path to the destination.
a different network. The router forwards the data packet to the
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): appropriate next hop.
Widely used protocol. Router's role in IP address assignment:
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1). Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. devices on a local network.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. predefined range to connected devices.
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration
separated by colons (e.g., and simplifies network management.
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). Connecting a local network to the Internet:
Provides an extremely large number of unique A router serves as the gateway between a local
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). network and the internet.
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6: It connects the local network to an internet service
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 provider (ISP) network.
uses a 128-bit address. The router receives data packets from devices on the
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 local network and forwards them to the internet.
billion addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340 It also receives incoming data packets from the
undecillion addresses. internet and routes them to the appropriate devices
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated on the local network.
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration. 3.8. Types of Software and Interrupts
Routers Types of Software
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility
programs and device drivers
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word
processor, etc.

System Software:

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these are a set of programs which control and manage Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
the operations of hardware documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
gives a platform for other software to run text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
it is required to allow hardware and software to run importing images.
without problems Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows,
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources with each cell identified using a unique combination of
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
Application Software: produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
calculations.
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
computer’s resources manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office) and report on data and add, delete, and modify records
user can execute the software when they require, and it in a table.
is mostly not automatic Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
interface with sensors and allow a computer or
Examples microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
control applications by comparing sensor data with
~~System Software:~~ stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform from games to sophisticated software such as phone
tasks without re-compilation. banking. Common examples include video and music
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
into a single program, allowing the use of separately Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
written code modules in the final program. users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
communicate with a computer's operating system, applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
without which a device like a printer would be unable to transitions between clips.
work. Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows
Operating system: Software that manages basic the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with
computer functions such as input/output operations, bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a
program loading and running, and security management, different image, while vector graphics editors manipulate
making computers more user-friendly. lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and required.
controls computer resources by carrying out specific
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file Interrupts
management, and security.
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
Application Software: from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:

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Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific protecting computers from malware.
intervals. They should be kept up to date and run in the
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or background to maintain their effectiveness.
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
the microprocessor's activities. loaded and compares possible viruses against a
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, database of known viruses.
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses
address the hardware problem. that are not yet on the database.
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic
keys on a keyboard (e.g., <CTRL><ALT><BREAK>), leading deletion or for the user to decide.
to an interrupt in the system's operation. Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files constantly discovered.
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes Full system scans should be carried out regularly to
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to detect dormant viruses.
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
the microprocessor to handle the issues. Disk Defragmentation Software
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) movements to find the data.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
3.9. Utility Software become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Computer users have access to utility programs as part
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing
of system software
for faster data access and retrieval.
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
The defragmentation process can free up previously
background without user input
occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Backup Software
file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers.

Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software

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Backup software is a utility software that helps create Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
and manage backup copies of data files and programs. understood by the hardware device they are associated
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard with.
drives are good practices, but operating system backup Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
utilities are also recommended. cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only by the operating system.
backup files if changes have been made to them. USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
There could be three file versions for total security: the vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally number that allow the operating system to identify the
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup device.
on cloud storage. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
Security Software computer simultaneously.

Security software is a utility software that manages

access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
3.10. Operating Systems
such as virus and spyware checkers. Operating Systems are designed to establish
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
communication between the user and the computer
prevent unauthorized access.
Functions of a typical operating system -
Security software uses encryption and decryption to -managing files
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a – handling interrupts
decryption key. – providing an interface
It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
– managing peripherals and drivers
and prevent malicious software from being installed.
– managing memory
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords – managing multitasking
to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access. – providing a platform for running applications
– providing system security
Screensavers – managing user accounts
Screensavers display moving and still images on the WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
monitor screen after computer inactivity.
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
from 'phosphor burn'.
Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
device and as a part of computer security systems.
They automatically log out of the user after a certain
period of inactivity.
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.

Device Drivers

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -

Second Edition (Hodder Education)

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Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the It is easier to read and understand as the language is
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs closer to human language.
Security Management - Providing security features such Easier to write in a shorter time
as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on Easier to debug at the development stage
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device Easier to maintain once in use
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Low-Level Languages
Renaming, and many more functions Refer to machine code
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources Binary instructions that the computer understands
with each of the processes
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
users to customise their accounts individually.

Running of Applications
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
through the bootstrap loader.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
the location of the OS in the storage.
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Assembly Language
Few programmers use assembly language to -
Make use of special hardware
Write code that doesn’t take up much space
Write code that runs very quickly
Assembly language must be translated into machine
code using an assembler to run.
Interrupts
3.12. Translators
Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s
doing and service a task Compiler
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt Translates a program written in a high-level language
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it into machine code
Different interrupts have different levels of priority Used without compiler
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process Executable file of machine code produced
continues One high-level language translated into several machine
code instructions
Used for general use
3.11. Programming Languages,
Translators and IDEs Interpreter

Computers can only understand machine code;

therefore, translators are needed

High-Level Languages

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Executes a high-language program a statement at a time An IDE would usually have these features -
No executable file of machine code produced Code Editor
One high-level language program statement may require Translator
several machine code instructions to be executed. Debugger
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an Error Reports
interpreter Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
Used when the program is being developed Auto-Documenter
Pretty Printing
Assembler

Translates a low-level language program into machine

code
4. The Internet and Its Uses
Executable file of machine code produced
One low-level language translated into one machine 4.1. The Internet and the World Wide
code instructions
It can be used without an assembler
Web
Used for general use | Internet | World Wide Web (WWW) | |----|----| | Uses
| Compiler | Interpreter | Assembler | |----|----|----| | transmission protocols such as TCP and IP (Internet
Translates a high-level language program into machine code. Protocols) | Collection of webpages and other information
| Executes a high-level language program one statement at on websites | | Allows the user to communicate with other
a time. | Translates a low-level assembly language program users via chat, email, calling and more | Uses HTTP(S)
into machine code. | | An executable file of machine code is protocols that are written using Hypertext Mark-up
produced. | No executable file of machine code is produced. Language (HTML) | | Worldwide Collection of
| An executable file of machine code is produced. | | One Interconnected Networks and Devices | URLs (Uniform
high-level language statement can be translated into several Resource Locator) are used for the location of the web pages
machine code instructions. | One high-level language | | | Web browsers can access web pages. |
program statement may require several machine code
instructions to be executed. | One low-level language Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)
statement is usually translated into one machine code
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
instruction. | | Compiled programs are run without the
typical format of URLs is -
compiler. | Interpreted programs cannot be run without the
interpreter. | Assembled programs are used without the The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
assembler. | | A compiled program is usually distributed for The website address would contain -
general use. | An interpreter is often used when a program domain host (www)
is being developed. | An assembled program is usually domain name (website name)
distributed for general use. | domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) The path would usually become the file directory roots.
for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) The /computer-science is the file name

HTTP and HTTPS

HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
data.

Web Browsers

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Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
It is software used to connect to the internet block would contain -
It translates the HTML code
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of
Offers additional features like search history & ad money and more
blockers Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block
The browser sends the URL to the domain name server in the chain
(DNS)
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

Cookies
Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
They are used to track data about the users and autofill
forms or give suggestions accordingly
Types of Cookies -
The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point
| Session Cookie | Persistent Cookie | |----|----| | to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)
Temporary cookies are stored in the RAM till the browser is
closed. | Remembers the user’s login details so the user 4.3. Cyber Security
doesn’t have to log in every time they visit a website | |
Doesn’t collect any information on the user | Stored on the Brute Force Attack:
hard disk on the computer until their expiry date or the user
deletes them | | A good example is the virtual shopping Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the
basket on e-commerce websites. | | different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols.
Effect:
4.2. Digital Currency Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit
cards, passwords and more)
Form of payment to pay for goods and services To remove risk:
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal, Use stronger passwords with more characters and
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more) symbols
Cryptocurrency was later introduced due to the problem
Data Interception:
in centralised banking systems.
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
transactions.
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
Blockchain Network

Blockchain Network
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
computers where the transaction data is stored
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would
be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be
changed without the consent of all the network
members

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This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
wireless transmission line Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
internet connections illegally computer malfunction
Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent a certain amount of money is paid
back to the attacker Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen
Effect: Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
It can cause a computer to crash legitimate software
Can delete or corrupt files/data Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
To remove risk: user to the attacker
Install anti-virus software Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
Don’t use software from unknown sources the intention of corrupting the entire network instead
Be careful when opening emails from unknown of the computer alone

Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS) Phishing

An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
network into giving out their information.
Usually temporary but may be damaging To remove risk:
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from: Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Accessing their emails Use anti-phishing tools
Accessing websites Block pop-up ads
Accessing online services Have an up-to-date browser

Hacking Pharming

The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
Effect: which redirects the user to fake websites
This leads to identity theft, gaining personal Effect:
information The user gives out login details and other personal
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted details
To remove risk: To remove risk:
Firewalls Using anti-virus software
Strong passwords/ user IDs Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
Use of anti-hacking software Make sure that the green padlock is present in the
Difference between hacking and cracking URL bar
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Cracking is when someone edits a program code, Social Engineering
malicious
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
Malware giving out their details (For example - Spam calls
informing them that their account has been hacked)

Keeping data safe from threats

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of
different people (for example - Only doctors can have authentication to prove who the user is
access to patient’s data) Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware patches which improve device security
attacks Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong
Authentication - User proving who they are. The most spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs), the tone would also seem urgent
biometrics and more) Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the
traffic between a network and the user’s computer
| Biometric Methods | Benefits | Drawbacks | |----|----|----| Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the
| Fingerprint Scans | Most development methods are very user’s computer and the web server. They are used for -
easy to use and require very low storage space to store the Filtering Internet traffic
biometric data. | Intrusive as used to identify criminals, Can’t Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
be used if the finger gets dirty or damaged (e.g. cuts) | | Blocking access to certain websites
Retina Scan | With very high accuracy, it Impossible to Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy
replicate a person’s retina | It is very intrusive, Takes longer server, keeping the web server safe.
to verify, Expensive to install and set up | | Face Recognition Acts as a firewall as well.
| Non-intrusive method, Relatively cheaper | Can’t identify if Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
there are any changes in the lighting, change in age or user’s profile
person’s age. | | Voice Recognition | Non-Intrusive method, SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
verification is done quickly and relatively cheaper | Voices communicating with other users on the internet.
can be recorded and used for verification, but low accuracy
and illnesses such as colds or coughs can affect a person’s
voice, making identification impossible. | 5. Automated and Emerging
Technologies
5.1. Automated Systems
Automated Systems are a combination of software and
hardware designed to function without human
intervention.
Process of Automated Systems
Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter
(ADC)
The microprocessor processes the data and makes
the necessary decisions based on its program
The actions are then executed by the actuators
(Motors, wheels and so on)

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Faster and Safer | Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Robots can work
| Expensive to set up and maintain | | Any changes can be 24/7 | Robots can find it difficult to do non-standard tasks |
identified quickly | Any computerised systems are prone to | Robots can work in hazardous conditions | Robots can
attacks | | Less Expensive in the long run | Over-reliance on lead to higher unemployment | | They are less expensive in
automated systems may cause humans to lose skills | | the long run | Risk of deskilling as robots replace humans in
Higher Productivity and Efficiency | | some task | | They have high productivity and are more
You should be able to describe the advantages and consistent | Expensive to install and maintain in the short
disadvantages of an automated system used for a given run | | | Robots have the risk of getting hacked. |
scenario.
Including scenarios from: 5.3. Artificial Intelligence
industry
transport AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
agriculture intelligent human behaviour.
weather Types of AI -
Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
gaming
human when doing one specific task
lighting
science General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
5.2. Robotics human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI -
Robotics is the branch of computer science that Collection of Data and Rules
combines robot design, construction and operation. Ability to Reason
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics - Ability to learn and adapt
A robot may not injure a human through action or
inaction Types of AI
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
comes into conflict with Law 1 Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
law 1. answering questions using knowledge and inference.
Characteristics of a robot - They have many applications, including chatbots,
Ability to sense their surroundings diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
Have a degree of movement and so on
Programmable
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | High level of
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO Expertise | Setup and Maintenance costs are very high | |
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN High Accuracy and Consistent | Can only rely on the
CHARACTERISTICS information in the system | | High response times | Tend to
give cold responses sometimes |
Types of Robots -
Independent - Have no human intervention; they can Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines
completely replace humans are trained to learn from past experiences.
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
interface, can supplement but can’t completely | AI | Machine Learning | |----|----| | Representation of
replace humans human intelligence in machines | Machines are trained to
make decisions without being programmed to | | The aim is
to build machines that think like humans | The aim is to
make machines learn through data acquisitions |

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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