Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.1

Gradient, Laplacian, and

the Potential Functions

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 0

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.1-1
Gradient and the Potential Functions
ax ay az
  
×A =
x y z
Ax Ay Az
  
  × A =  × A x +  × A y +  × A z
•
x y z
  
x y z
=   
x y z
Ax Ay Az
=0
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 1
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.1-2

Since  •B  0,
B can be expressed as the curl of a vector.

Thus
B=A

A is known as the magnetic vector potential.

Then

 × E = − ( × A )
t
A
= − ×
t

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 2

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.1-3
 A 
 ×E+ =0
 t 
A
E+ = −
t
A
E = − −
t
 is known as the electric scalar potential.

    
 =  ax + ay + az  
 x y z 
  
= ax + ay + az
x y z
is the gradient of 
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 3
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.1-4

ax ay az
  
 ×  =
x y z
(   )x (  ) y (   )z
ax ay az
  
= x y z
  
x y z
0
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 4
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.1-5
Basic definition of 
Q ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz )
 + d
dl

P ( x, y , z )
d  =  • d l
From this, we get
d
 = an
dn
  = Maximum rate of increase of 
an = direction of the maximum rate of increase, which
occurs normal to the constant  surface.
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 5
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.1-6
B
×E= −
t
D 
×H=J+ 
t 
 •D =  

 •B = 0
B=×A
A
E = − −
t 
and using  •A = − 
t
 2
 
2 −  2 = −
t  Potential function
 2
A equations
 A −  2 = −  J
2

t
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 6
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.1-7

 2  =  • Laplacian of scalar

 A =  (  •A ) −  ×  × A Laplacian of vector
2

In Cartesian coordinates,

   2 2 2
 = 2 + 2 + 2
2

x y z

2 A = ( 2 Ax ) ax + ( 2 Ay ) a y + ( 2 Az ) az

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 7

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.2

Potential Functions for

Static Fields

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 0

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.2-1

 • = 0 →  =  × A

   
×E= − →  ×E + =0
t  t 

→E+ = −
t

E = − −
t

For static fields, =0
t
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 1
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.2-2

E = −
B B

A
E • d l =  − •d l
A
B
=  −d 
A

=   B
A

=  A − B
B
But,  A
E • d l = VA − VB
= voltage between A and B
also known as the potential difference between A and
B, for the static case.
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 2
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.2-3
 = V
E = −V
Given the charge distribution, find V using superposition.
Then find E using the above.
For a point charge at the origin,
Q
V=
4  r
Since V
E = − V = − ar
r
  Q 
=−   ar
 r  4  r 
Q
= ar
4  r 2

agrees with the previously known result.

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 3
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.2-4

Thus for a point charge at an arbitrary location P

Q
V= P
4  R R

a 1
Q

dz  
P5.9 z
z

2
−a

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 4

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.2-5

Considering the element of length dz at (0, 0, z), we have

L 0 dz
dV =
4  r + ( z − z  )
2 2

Using z − z = r tan 
d z  = −r sec2 d

− L 0 r sec  d2
dV =
4  r sec 
− L 0
=− sec  d
4 
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 5
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.2-6
a
V = 1 dV
z =− a

L 0 
=−  sec  d
1

4   = 2

L 0 
=− 1n ( sec  + tan  ) 
1

4  2

L 0 sec 2 + tan 2
= 1n
4  sec 1 + tan 1

r + ( z + a) + ( z + a)
2
L 0
2

= 1n
4  r + ( z − a) + ( z − a)
2 2

for z  a
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 6
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.2-7

Magnetic vector potential due to a current element

 I dl P
A= R
4 R I dl

Analogous to
Q
V=
4  R

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 7

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3

Poisson’s and Laplace’s

Equations

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 0

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-1
Poisson’s Equation
For static electric field,
B
×E= − =0
t
E = −V
Then from
 •D = 
 • V = − 

If  is uniform,   •V = − 

 •V = −

  Poisson’s
V =−
 equation
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 1
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-2
If  is nonuniform, then using

 • =  • +  •,
 •  V =   •V + V • 
Thus
  •V + V • = − 
 V +  •V = − 

2V 2V 2V 

Assuming uniform , we have + 2 + 2 =−
x 2
y z 

V
2

For the one-dimensional case of V(x), =−
x 2

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 2
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-3
D5.7
Anode, x = d
V = V0
43
x
V = V0   Vacuum Diode
d 
Cathode, x = 0
V=0

(a) V  x=d 8
43 43
 1   1 
= V0   = V0  81 2 
 8  
1 V0
= V0 2 3 =
8 4
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 3
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-4

(b) E x=d 8 =  −V  x=d 8

 V 
= − ax 
 x  x = d 8
 4V0  x 1 3 
= −   ax 
 3d  d   x = d 8
13
4V0  1 
=−   ax
3d  8 
2V0
=− ax
3d
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 4
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-5

(c)    x =d 8 =  0  − V  x =d 8
 2V 
= 0 − 2 
 x  x =d 8
 4V0  x − 2 3 
= 0 − 2   
 9d  d   x =d 8
−2 3
4V0  1 
= − 0 2  
9d  8 
4V0
= − 0 2 ( 8 )
23

9d
16  0V0
=−
9d 2
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 5
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-6
Laplace’s Equation
If  =  Poisson’s equation becomes

 V = − = 0 for uniform 



 V +  V = −  = 0 for nonuniform 

Let us consider uniform  first

Parallel-plate capacitor
x = d, V= V0

x = 0, V = 0
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 6
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-7

Neglecting fringing of field at edges,

V = V ( x)

  2
V
 V = 2 = 0
x
V
=A
x

V = Ax + B General solution

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 7

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-8
Boundary conditions

V = 0 at x = 0
V = V0 at x = d
0 = 0+ B → B = 0
V0
V0 = Ad + 0 → A =
d
V0
V = x Particular solution
d
V
E = − V = − ax
x
V0
= − ax
d
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 8
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-9

ax •  Ex =0 for x = 0

 S = an D =  •

−ax •  Ex = d for x = d

  V0
ax − d ax for x = 0
•

=
a  V0 a for x = d
•

 x d x
  V0 + + + + x=d
− d for x = 0 −ax
=  ax
x

  V0 for x = d − − − − x=0
 d

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 9

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-10
Q = S A area of plates
 V0 A
=
d
Q A
C= =
V0 d
For nonuniform 
 2V +  •V = 0
For V = V ( x),
2V    V 
 2 +   =0
x  x  x 
  V 
 =0
x  x 
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 10
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-11
Example

x = d, V = V0
 x 
 =  0 1 + 
 2d 
x = 0, V = 0

   x  V 
0 1 +   = 0
x   2d  x 
  x  V 
 1 +   =0
x  2d  x 
 x  V
1 +  =A
 2d  x
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 11
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-12
V A
=
x 1 + 2xd
 x 
V = 2 Ad 1n 1 + + B
 2d 
V = 0 for x = 0
0 = 2 Ad 1n 1 + B → B = 0
V = V0 for x = d
3 V0
V0 = 2 Ad 1n → A =
2 2d 1n 32
V0  x 
V = 1n 1 + 
1n 1.5  2d 
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 12
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

5.3-13
V
Ε = −V = − ax
x
V0 1
=− ax
2d 1n 1.5 1 + 2d
x

 0 V0
D= Ε= − ax
2d 1n 1.5
 0 V0
S x = 0 = S x = d =
2d 1n 1.5
 V A
Q = S A = 0 0
2d 1n 1.5
Q 0 A
C= =
V0 2d 1n 1.5
C 0
=
A 2d 1n 1.5
Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 13