Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.1

Conductors
and Semiconductors

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.1-1

Material Media can be classified as

(1) Conductors
and Semiconductors electric property
(2) Dielectrics
(3) Magnetic materials – magnetic property

Conductors and Semiconductors

Conductors are based upon the property of

conduction, the phenomenon of drift of free
electrons in the material with an average drift
velocity proportional to the applied electric field.
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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.1-2

electron free electrons

cloud + bound
elecrons

nucleus

In semiconductors, conduction occurs not only by

electrons but also by holes – vacancies created by
detachment of electrons due to breaking of
covalent bonds with other atoms.
The conduction current density is given by

J c = E Ohm’s Law
at a point
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4.1-3

 = conductivity (S/m)
  e Ne e conductors
=
 h N h e +  e N e e semiconductors

 = Mobility
Nh,e = Density of holes (h) or electrons (e)

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.1-4

Ohm’s Law
V = El l
A
V 
Jc = E = E, Jc
l
A I
I = Jc A = V
l
l V
V=I
A
V = IR Ohm’s Law
l
R=
A
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4.1-5

D4.1 I 0.1 3 A m2
Jc = = = 10
A 10 –4
(a) For cu,
 = 5.8  10 7 S m
10 3Jc
E= = = 17.24 V m
 5.8  10 7
(b)  = ( h + e ) Ne e

= (1700 + 3600 )10−4  2.5 1013 106

1.602 10−19
= 2.1229 S m
103 Jc
E= = = 471.1 V m
 2.1227
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4.1-6

l
(c) From R = =1
A
l 1 10 6
= = = Sm
RA   10 –6 
Jc 10 3
E= = 6 = 3.14 mV m
 10 

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4.1-7

Conductor in a static electric field

E E

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.1-8
S0
– – – – – S = –0E0
z=d
E0az + + + + +
z=d E = – S0 az
– – – – – 0
z=0
z=0 –S0
+ + + + + S = 0E0
S0
– a z + E0 a z = 0
– – – – – S = –0E0 0
z=d + + + + + S = 0E0

z=0 – –
E=0
– – – S = –0E0 S0 =  0 E0
+ + + + + S = 0E0

S0
E= a z for z  0
2 0
S0
= an
2 0
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4.1-9

P4.3
(a) S0 = S1 + S2

S1
Ei = 0 z
S2

S1 S2
Ei = – az + az = 0
2 0 2 0
1
  S1 = S2 =  S0
2

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4.1-10

(b)
S11
E i1 = 0
S12

S21
Ei2 = 0
S22

S11 + S12 = S1

S21 + S22 = S2
Write two more equations and solve for the four
unknowns.

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.2

Dielectrics

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 0

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.2-1

Dielectrics
are based upon the property of polarization, which is the phenomenon of the
creation of electric dipoles within the material.
The charges in a dielectric are not able to move about freely, they are bound
by finite forces and we may certainly expect a displacement when an external
force is applied

Electronic polarization: (bound electrons are displaced to

form a dipole)

E Q +
+ Dipole moment
d
- p = Qd
-Q -

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.2-2

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 2

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.2-3
Orientational polarization: (Already existing dipoles of atoms and
molecules are acted upon by a torque)

QE Torque = QEd sin q

+
q
Direction into the paper.
d E

q  T = Qd × E
- = p×E
however, this is randomly oriented, and hence the
- QE
net polarization on a macroscopic scale is zero

Ionic polarization: (separation of positive and negative ions in molecules)

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.2-4
The phenomenon of polarization results in a polarization charge in the
material which produces a secondary E.
-rS0 In the presence of the dielectric
In the absence of the dielectric
- - - - - - -
z=d
Ea + + + +
- - - -
e = e 0 + + + +
- - - -
+ + + +
z=0 - - - -
+ + + + + + +
rS0

r pS = r pS 0 - - - - - - -
z=d + + + + + + + E+
t

ES
z=0 - - - - - - - -

r pS = - r pS 0 + + + + + + +

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4.2-5
Polarization Current: (textbook)

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4.2-6

To take into account the effect of polarization, we define the

displacement flux density vector, D, as

D = 0E + P
=  0 E +  0 e E
=  0 (1 + e ) E
= 0  r E
=  E C m2  = permittivity, F m
 r = relative permittivity

 r and  vary with the material, implicitly taking into account

the effect of polarization. e : electric susceptibility

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4.2-7

As an example, consider
- rS 0

- - - - - - -
z=d

 z

z=0
+ + + + + + +
rS 0

Then, inside the material, rS 0 - rS 0

E= az + ( -az )
2 2
rS 0
= az

D =  E = rS 0 a z
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4.2-8

D4.3 -1 C m2
- - - - - - -
z=d

z
 = 4 0

z=0
+ + + + + + +
1 C m2

For 0 < z < d,

(a) D = rS 0az = 10 az C m
-6 2

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4.2-9

(b) E = =
1
 4 0
(10-6
az )
D

36 -6
= -9
 10 az
4  10
= 9000 az V m

(c) P = D -  0 E

= 10-6 az - 0.25  10-6 az

= 0.75  10-6 az C m2

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.2-10

Isotropic Dielectrics:
D is parallel to E for all E.
y
Dx =  Ex D
Dy =  Ey
Dz =  Ez E

D=E x

Anisotropic Dielectrics:
D is not parallel to E in general. Only for certain directions
(or polarizations) of E is D parallel to E. These are known
as characteristic polarizations.

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.2-11

Dx =  xx Ex +  xy Ey +  xz Ez y

Dy =  yx Ex +  yy Ey +  yz Ez
E D
Dz =  zx Ex +  zy Ey +  zz Ez
x

 Dx   xx  xy  xz   Ex 
 D  =   
 yy  yz   Ey 
 y   yx
 Dz   zx  zy  zz   Ez 


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4.2-12

D4.4
8 2 0 
  =  2 5 0
 0 0 9 

(a) E = E0 az

 Dx  8 2 0   0   0 
  2 5 0  0  =   0 
D
 y =  0
   0
 
 Dz   0 0 9   E0  9 0 

D = 9 0 E0 az = 9 0 E
eff = 90 , reff = 9
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4.2-13

(b) E = E0 ax - 2a y ( )
 Dx  8 2 0   E0   4 E0 
   2 5 0   -2 E  =   -8 E 
D
 y =  0
  0
 0
 0

 Dz   0 0 9   0   0 

D = 40 E0 ( ax - 2a y ) = 40 E

eff = 40 ,  reff = 4

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4.2-14

(c) E = E0 2ax + a y ( )
 Dx  8 2 0   2 E0  18E0 
  2 5 0  E  =   9E 
D
 y =  0
  0  0
 0
 Dz   0 0 4   0   0 

D = 90 E0 ( 2ax + a y ) = 90 E

eff = 90 , reff = 9

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.3

Magnetic Materials

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 0

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.3-1

Magnetic Materials
are based upon the property of magnetization, which is the
phenomenon of creation of magnetic dipoles within the material.

Dipole moment
Diamagnetism: m = IA an
A net dipole moment is induced by
changing the angular velocities of
the electronic orbits. e
I
+
A I

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 1

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.3-2
Paramagnetism
Already existing dipoles are acted upon by a torque (moment).
I dl × B

B I

I dl × B

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4.3-3
The phenomenon of magnetization results in a magnetization current in the
material which produces a secondary B.
− J S 0a y In the presence of the magnetic material,
this field acts as the applied magnetic
z=d field resulting in magnetic dipole
Ba moments
m = m 0

z=0

J S 0a y
J mS = − J mS 0a y
z=d
Bs
Bt

z=0
JmS = JmS 0a y

The magnetic susceptibility m is a measure of the ability

of the material to become magnetized and differs from one
magnetic
Dept. material
of Telecoms to another.
Engineering 3
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

Magnetization Current 4.3-4

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4.3-5
To take into account the effect of magnetization, we define the magnetic field
intensity vector, H, as

B The magnetic vector M is the vector

H= −M sum of the magnetic moments of all
0
the atoms contained in a unit
B m B volume.
= −
 0 1 + m  0
B
=
 0(1 + m )
B  = permeability, H m
=
 0 r r = relative permeability
B
= A m


r and  vary with the material, implicitly taking into account the effect of
magnetization.
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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.3-6
As an example, consider
− J S 0a y

z

y x

J S 0a y

Then inside the material,

 
B=
2
J S 0a y × a z +
2
( −J a
S0 y ) × (-a ) z

=  J S 0 ax
B
H= = J S 0 ax

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4.3-7

D4.6
−0.1 a y

z=d
z
 = 100  0
y x
z=0

0.1 a y

For 0 < z < d,

(a) H = 0.1 a y × az = 0.1 ax A m

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4.3-8

(b) B =  H = 100  0( 0.1 ax )

= 10  0ax Wb m 2

= 4  10−6 ax Wb m2

(c) M =
B
−H
0
= 10 ax − 0.1 ax
= 9.9 ax A m

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.4

Wave Equation and

Solution for Material
Medium

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 0

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.4-1

Waves in Material Media

In section 3.4:

Then: Ex ( z , t ) H y ( z , t )
= −
z t
H y ( z , t ) Ex ( z , t )
= − Ex ( z , t ) − 
z t
Ex
= − j H y
z
H y
= − Ex − j Ex = − ( + j ) Ex
z
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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.4-2

Combining, we get

 Ex2
= j ( + j ) Ex
z 2

Define
 =  + j = j ( + j ) Propagation
constant

Then
2 Ex
=  2
E Wave equation
z 2 x

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 2

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4.4-3

Solution:

Ex ( z ) = Ae − z
+ Bez

Ex ( z , t ) = Re  Ex ( z ) . e jt 

= Re ( Ae + Be ) e 
 − z z jt

= Re  Ae e e e + Be e z e j z e jt 
+ −
j −  z − j  z j t j
 
= Ae − z
cos (t −  z +  +
)
+ Be z cos (t +  z +  − )

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 3

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4.4-4

Ae− z cos (t −  z +  + )


attenuation ( + ) wave

B e z cos (t +  z +  − )

attenuation ( − ) wave

 = attenuation constant, Np/m, Neper

 = phase constant, rad/m
 = propagation constant, m−1
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4.4-5

f ( z, t ) = e − z
cos (t −  z )

1 t=  t= 
4 2
 t =0

0 z
2

−1

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 5

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.4-6

g ( z, t ) = e z cos (t +  z )

g
t= 
2
t=  1
4
t =0 

−z 0
2

−1

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 6

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.4-7

Ex
= − j H y
z
1 Ex
Hy = −
j z
1 
=−  Ae− z + Be  z 
j z
1
=  Ae− z − Be  z 


j
where  = = intrinsic impedance of the medium.
 + j

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4.4-8

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4.4-9
Summarizing,

 =  + j = j ( + j )
j
j
 = e =
 + j

conversely, 1
=
j 

 = Re

1
 = Im
 
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4.4-10

Example:
For dry earth,  = 10−5 s/m,  = 50 , and  = 0 .
Let us compute  ,  , vp ,  , and  for f = 100 kHz.

Solution:
 = j ( + j )

  
= j . j 1 + 
 j 

= j  1 − j 
2 f 

= j 2  105
 5 1 − j 0.36
3 108
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4.4-11

= j 0.004683 1.0628 − 19.8

= j 0.004683 1.0309 − 9.9

= j 0.004683 (1.0155 − j 0.1772 )

= 0.00083 + j 0.004756

 = 0.00083 Np/m

 = 0.004756 rad/m

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4.4-12


vp = = 2  105
= 1.321108 m/s
 0.004756

 = 2 = 2 = 1321.05 m
 0.004756

j
=
 + j

j 1
= .
j 1 +  j

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4.4-13

 1
= .
 1 − j  j

= 120 1
5 1 − j 0.36

= 168.6 1
1.0309 − 9.9

= 163.559.9

= (161.1 + j 28.1) 

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4.4-14

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 14

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4.4-15

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 15

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.5

Uniform Plane Waves in

Dielectrics and Conductors

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.5-1
Special Cases:

1. Perfect dielectric: ( = 0 )
 = j  j = j 

 = 0 no attenuation

 =  

j 
= = , purely real
j 
Behavior same as in free space except that 0 → 
and 0 → .
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4.5-2

2. Imperfect Dielectric: (  0 but  <<  )

 = j ( + j )


 + j 
2 

   
  1 + j 
  2 
Behavior essentially like in a perfect dielectric except
for attenuation.

Dept. of Telecoms Engineering 2

Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.5-3
3. Good Conductor: ( >>  )
 = j ( + j )

  f  (1 + j )
 =    f 

j  f
=  (1 + j )
 + j 

2 f 
= 45

Behavior much different from that in a dielectric.
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4.5-4

4. Perfect Conductor: ( =  )
Idealization of good conductor in the limit
that  → .
 → ,  → 0

No waves can penetrate into a perfect conductor.

No time-varying fields inside a perfect conductor.

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4.6

Boundary Conditions

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.6-1

Why boundary conditions?

Medium Medium
1 2

Inc.
wave Trans.
wave

Ref.
wave

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields 1-Jan-24

4.6-2

Maxwell’s equations in integral form must be satisfied

regardless of where the contours, surfaces, and volumes are.

Example:

C3

C1 C2

Medium 1 Medium 2

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4.6-3
Example of derivation of boundary conditions
d
C E . d l = − dt S B . d S
Medium 1
an as
a b

d c
Medium 2

d .
 
Lim Lim
ad →0 E . dl = − ad →0 area B dS
bc →0 abcda bc →0 dt abcd
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Eab ( ab ) + Ecd ( cd ) = 0
Eab − Edc = 0
aab . ( E1 − E2 ) = 0
as × an . ( E1 − E2 ) = 0
as . an × ( E1 − E2 ) = 0

an × ( E1 − E2 ) = 0
or,
Et1 − Et 2 = 0
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Summary of boundary conditions

an × ( E1 − E2 ) = 0 or Et1 − Et 2 = 0

an × ( H1 − H2 ) = J S or Ht 1 − Ht 2 = J S

an . ( D1 − D2 ) = S or Dn1 − Dn 2 = S

an . ( B1 − B2 ) = 0 or Bn1 − Bn 2 = 0

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Perfect Conductor Surface

(No time-varying fields inside a perfect conductor. Also
no static electric field; may be a static magnetic field.)
Assuming both E and H to be zero inside, on the surface,

an × E = 0 or Et = 0

an × H = J S or Ht = J S

an .D = S or Dn = S

an . B = 0 or Bn = 0

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an E

E
+ −

 =

an

JS H H JS

 =

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Dielectric-Dielectric Interface
S = 0, J S = 0

an × ( E1 − E2 ) = 0 or Et1 = Et 2

an × ( H1 − H2 ) = 0 or Ht 1 = H
Et2t 2

an . ( D1 − D2 ) = 0 or Dn1 = Dn 2

an . ( B1 − B2 ) = 0 or Bn1 = Bn 2

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an Dn1 En1
Medium 1, e0
Et1

Et2 Dn2 En2

Medium 2, 3e0

an
Bn1 Hn1
Medium 1, m0
Ht1
Ht2 Bn2 Hn2
Medium 2, 2m0

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Example:
D4.13 At a point on a perfect conductor surface,
(a) D = D0 ( ax + 2a y − 2az )and pointing away from
the surface. Find S . D0 is positive.

D D0 ( ax + 2a y − 2az )
an = =
D D0 ax + 2a y − 2az
2
D D
S = an .D = .D =
D D
= D = D0 ax + 2a y − 2az = 3D0
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( )
(b) D = D0 0.6 ax − 0.8 a y and pointing toward the
surface. D0 is positive.

D
an = −
D
2
D D
S = an .D = − . D = −
D D
= − D = − D0 0.6 ax − 0.8 a y
= − D0

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Example: 2 perfect dielectrics, =0, Jc = E=0
z
E = E a for r  a.
1 0 z
r>a
e2 = e0
(0, 0, a) 2
 a a 
 0, , 
 2 2

(a) At ( 0, 0, a ) , 1 (0, a, 0)
y
an = az r<a an
e1 = 2e0
E1 is entirely normal.
 D2 = D1 = 2 e 0 E1
D2
E2 = = 2E1 = 2 E0 az
e0
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(b) At ( 0, a, 0 ) ,
an = a y
E1 is entirely tangential
E2 = E1 = E0 az

 a a 
(c) At  0, , ,
 2 2
an =
1
2
( a y + az )

an × ( E2 − E1 ) = 0 
 Solve.
an . ( D2 − D1 ) = 0
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4.7

Reflection and
Transmission of Uniform
Plan Waves

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To satisfy the boundary conditions at we note that (1) the
components of both electric and magnetic fields are entirely
tangential to the interface and (2) in view of the finite
conductivities of the media, no surface current exists on the
interface (currents flow in the volumes of the media)

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We now define the reflection coefficient at the boundary, denoted by
the symbol  to be the ratio of the reflected wave electric field at

the boundary to the incident wave electric field at the boundary

The ratio of the transmitted wave electric field at the boundary to

the incident wave electric field at the boundary, known as the
transmission coefficient (  ) is given by

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Example 4.8 Normal incidence of a uniform plane wave onto a
material medium

Find the reflected and transmitted wave electric and magnetic fields?

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