NAME: GOLDA-MEIR AGYEMANG BADU

CLASS: 1 SCIENCE 1

SUBJECT: Additional Mathematics

TOPIC: SETS AND OPERATION ON SETS

Research on Sets and Operations on Sets

1 .Introduction to Sets

In mathematics, a set is a collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right.
Sets are one of the fundamental concepts in mathematics and are used in various branches such
as algebra, geometry, and calculus.

Sets can include numbers, letters, symbols, or even other sets. For example:

 A set of natural numbers:

 A set of vowels in the English alphabet

Set Builder Notation

This notation specifies the elements of a set by describing their properties. It takes the form:

S= {x ∣ property of x}

 {}: Curly braces enclose the set.

 x: Represents the elements of the set.
 ∣ or:: Means "such that."
 Property of x: A condition that xxx must satisfy.

Example:

A= {x ∣ x>0 and x ∈ Z}
This describes the set of all positive integers (x>0x > 0x>0).

Roster or Tabular Form

In this notation, all elements of the set are explicitly listed, separated by commas, within curly
braces.

Example:

B= {1,2,3,4,5}B = \{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 \}B={1,2,3,4,5}

This is a set containing the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Common Symbols in Set Notation

 ∈: "is an element of." Example: 3 ∈ {1,2,3}.

 ∉: "is not an element of." Example: 4 ∉ {1,2,3}.
 ∅ /{}: The empty set, which contains no elements.
 N, Z, Q, R, C: Standard sets of numbers:
o {N}: Natural numbers.
o {Z}: Integers.
o {Q}: Rational numbers.
o {R}: Real numbers.
o {C}: Complex numbers.
Types of Sets
1.Empty Set

A set with no elements is called an empty set, denoted as or.

2. Finite and Infinite Sets

 Finite Set: A set with a finite number of elements.

 Infinite Set: A set with an uncountable number of elements.

3.Subset

A set is a subset of if every element of is also an element of,

denoted as; A⊆B

Set A is a subset of set B if every element in A is also an element of B. This is written as:

A⊆B

 The symbol ⊆ means "is a subset of."

 If there exists at least one element in A that is not in B, then A is not a subset of B.

4.Proper Subset

A set A is a proper subset of B if:

1. Every element of A is in B, and

 2. A≠B, meaning A does not contain all elements of B.

This is written as:

A⊂BA

Examples of Subsets

1. Example of Subset (A⊆B):

A={1,2} ,B={1,2,3,4}

Here, every element of A (1 and 2) is also in B, so A is a subset of B.

2. Example of Proper Subset (A⊂B):

A={1,2}, B={1,2,3,4}

Since A≠B and A⊆B, A is a proper subset of B.

3. Not a Subset (A⊈B):

A={1,5},B={1,2,3,4

Here, 5 is in A but not in B, so A is not a subset of B.

Special Subsets

1. Empty Set (∅):

o The empty set is a subset of every set because it contains no elements that could
violate the subset condition.
o Example: ∅⊆B for any set B.

2. A Set is a Subset of Itself:

o Any set is a subset of itself because every element of the set is, trivially, in the set.
o Example: A⊆A.
Visual Representation

 Venn Diagrams: A subset is represented as one circle (set AAA) entirely contained
within another circle (set BBB).
 Proper Subset: The smaller circle does not cover the entire area of the larger circle.

Subset vs. Superset

The concepts of subset and superset are inverse:

 If A⊆B, then B is a superset of A, written as B⊇A.

4. Universal Sets

The universal set is the set that contains all possible elements under consideration in a
particular context or discussion. It acts as the "universe" of discourse and is denoted by the
symbol U or sometimes by a specific name.

 Every subset being discussed is a part of the universal set. For any set A, A⊆U.

 The complement of a set A A′) is defined relative to the universal set:

A′= {x ∈ U ∣ x ∈ /A}
6. Disjoint Sets

Two sets are disjoint if they have no elements in common.

Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if:

A∩B=∅

Where:

 ∩: Represents the intersection of two sets.

 ∅: Denotes the empty set (a set with no elements).

This means there is no element x such that x ∈ A and x ∈ B.

Examples

1. Example of Disjoint Sets:

o A={1,2,3}, B={4,5,6}
o Since A∩B=∅, A and B are disjoint.

2. Example of Non-Disjoint Sets:

o A={1,2,3},B={3,4,5}
o Here, A∩B={3}, so A and B are not disjoint.

SETS OPERATION

1. Union (∪\∪)

The union of two sets A and B is a set that contains all elements from A, B, or both. It represents
the combination of the two sets.
A∪B={x ∣ x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Example:

 A={1,2,3},B={3,4,5}
 A∪B={1,2,3,4,5}

Venn Diagram:

 Represented by shading both circles corresponding to A and B.

2. Intersection (∩)

The intersection of two sets A and B is a set that contains only the elements common to both A
and B.
Example:

 A ={1,2,3},B ={3,4,5}
 A∩B= {3}

Venn Diagram:

 Represented by shading the overlapping region of the circles for A and B.

3. Complement (A′)

The complement of a set A consists of all elements in the universal set U that are not in A.
A′= {x ∣ x∈ U and x∈/A}

Example:

 Let U={1,2,3,4,5},A={2,3}
 A′={1,4,5}

Venn Diagram:

 Represented by shading the area outside the circle representing A but within the universal
set.

Venn Diagrams in Set Theory

Properties of set operations:

Properties of Set Operations: Detailed Explanation

1. Commutative Property

The commutative property states that the order of the sets does not matter for union or
intersection.
Union:
A∪B=B∪A

This means the result is the same regardless of the order in which the sets are united.

Intersection:
A∩B=B∩A

Similarly, the intersection of two sets is independent of the order.

Example:

 Let A= {1,2} ,,B={3,4}.

 A∪B= {1,2,3,4}, B∪A = {1,2,3,4}.
 A∩B=∅A, B∩A=∅.

2. Associative Property

The associative property ensures that the grouping of sets does not affect the result.

Union:
(A∪B)∪C=A∪( B ∪ C),(A ∪ B) ∪ C=A ∪ (B∪C)

This means you can group the unions in any way.

Intersection:
(A∩B)∩C=A∩(B∩C)(A∩B)∩C=A∩(B∩C)

Similarly, you can group intersections in any way.

Example:

 Let A={1},B={2},C={3},A={1},B={2},C={3}.
 (A∪B)∪C={1,2,3},A∪(B∪C)={1,2,3}.
  (A∩B)∩C=∅, A∩(B∩C)=∅.

3. Distributive Property

The distributive property allows union and intersection to distribute over each other.

Union over Intersection:

A∪(B∩C)=(A∪B)∩(A∪C),A∪(B∩C)=(A∪B)∩(A∪C)

Intersection over Union:

A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C),A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C)

Example:

 Let A={1,2},B={2,3},C={3,4}.
 B∩C={3}, so A∪(B∩C)={1,2,3}.
 A∪B={1,2,3},}A∪B={1,2,3} and }A∪C={1,2,3,4},so (A∪B)∩(A∪C)={1,2,3},
(A∪B)∩(A∪C)={1,2,3}.

4. Identity Property

The identity property uses the universal set (U) and the empty set(∅) as identity elements.

Union:
A∪∅=A ,A∪U=UA

A∩∅=∅,A∩U=AA

Example:

 Let A={1,2,3},U={1,2,3,4,5},
 A∪∅={1,2,3},A∪U={1,2,3,4,5}.
 A∩∅=∅A,A∩U={1,2,3}.
Solving Two-Set Problems

Two-set problems involve understanding the relationship between two sets and applying set
operations like union, intersection, difference, and complement. These problems are often
solved using formulas, Venn diagrams, and logical reasoning.

Steps to Solve Two-Set Problems

Step 1: Understand the Problem

 Identify the sets and their elements.

 Define the given data (e.g., number of elements in each set, shared elements, total
elements).

Step 2: Use the Venn Diagram

 Draw two overlapping circles to represent the two sets.

 Label the regions:
o Intersection (A∩B): Common elements in both sets.
o Only in A: Elements in AAA but not in B.
o Only in B: Elements in BBB but not in A.
o Outside both: Elements not in A or B.

Step 3: Apply Set Formulas

Use key formulas to solve the problem:

1. Union Formula:

∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣
 The union includes all unique elements from AAA and BBB, subtracting the intersection
to avoid double-counting.

2. Difference:
o Elements only in A: A−B=A∩B′
o Elements only in B: B−A=B∩A′

3. Intersection:

∣A∩B∣

Common elements between A and B.

4. Complement:
o Elements not in A or B: (A∪B)′=U−∣A∪B|

Step 4: Solve Step by Step

 Plug in the given values to the formulas.

 Use logical reasoning to find missing values or elements.
 Check consistency by verifying that all regions add up to the total.

Examples
Example 1: Simple Problem

In a class of 50 students:

 30 students like Math (A).

 25 students like Science (B).
 10 students like both Math and Science (A∩B).

Find how many students like:

1. Only Math.
 2. Only Science.
3. Neither subject.

Solution:

1. Use the union formula:

∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣=30+25−10=45

Total students who like at least one subject: 45.

2. Only Math:

∣A−B∣=∣A∣−∣A∩B∣=30−10=20

3. Only Science:

∣B−A∣=∣B∣−∣A∩B∣=25−10=15

4. Neither subject:

Neither=U−∣A∪B∣=50−45=5

Answer:

 Only Math: 20 students

 Only Science: 15 students
 Neither: 5 students

Example 2: Word Problem

A survey of 100 people revealed:

 60 own a car (A).

 50 own a motorcycle (B).
  20 own both a car and a motorcycle (A∩B).

Find:

1. The number of people who own either a car or a motorcycle.

2. The number of people who own only a car.
3. The number of people who own only a motorcycle.

Solution:

1. Either a car or a motorcycle:

∣A∪B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣=60+50−20=90|

Only a car:

∣A−B∣=∣A∣−∣A∩B∣=60−20=40

Only a motorcycle:

∣B−A∣=∣B∣−∣A∩B∣=50−20=30

Answer:

 Either a car or a motorcycle: 90 people

 Only a car: 40 people
 Only a motorcycle: 30 people

Key Tips

 Label clearly: Use A, B,A∩BA, B, ,B,A∩B, etc., consistently.

 Draw a Venn diagram: It helps visualize relationships.
 Recheck calculations: Ensure all subsets add up to the total.
 Practice: Work on a variety of problems for better understanding.
THREE SET PROBLEMS:

vv

A three-set Venn diagram is a diagram that visually represents the relationships between three
different sets or groups. Each set is typically represented as a circle, and the intersections
between the circles show how the sets share elements. Here's a breakdown of how it works:

Components of a Three-Set Venn Diagram:

1. Three Circles:
o Each circle represents a set, typically labeled as Set A, Set B, and Set C.
 o The area where each circle overlaps with another represents the common elements
between those two sets.
o The center, where all three circles overlap, represents the elements that are
common to all three sets.

2. Regions:
o Only A: The part of the circle for Set A that doesn't overlap with Sets B or C. It
represents elements that are only in Set A.
o Only B: The part of the circle for Set B that doesn’t overlap with Sets A or C. It
represents elements that are only in Set B.
o Only C: The part of the circle for Set C that doesn’t overlap with Sets A or B. It
represents elements that are only in Set C.
o A ∩ B: The overlap between Set A and Set B, excluding Set C. It represents
elements that are in both Set A and Set B, but not in Set C.
o A ∩ C: The overlap between Set A and Set C, excluding Set B. It represents
elements that are in both Set A and Set C, but not in Set B.
o B ∩ C: The overlap between Set B and Set C, excluding Set A. It represents
elements that are in both Set B and Set C, but not in Set A.
o A ∩ B ∩ C: The center of the diagram where all three circles overlap. It
represents elements that are in all three sets.

3. Universal Set: This is the larger set that contains all the possible elements in the context.
If an element is outside the circles, it is not part of any of the sets A, B, or C.

Example:

Imagine three sets:

 Set A: People who like pizza.

 Set B: People who like burgers.
 Set C: People who like ice cream.

A three-set Venn diagram for this example would show:

  The area where A and B overlap would represent people who like both pizza and burgers,
but not necessarily ice cream.
 The area where B and C overlap would represent people who like both burgers and ice
cream, but not necessarily pizza.
 The area where A, B, and C overlap would represent people who like all three foods
(pizza, burgers, and ice cream).

In this way, a three-set Venn diagram allows you to easily see the relationships and intersections
between multiple sets of data or concepts.

Summary:

A three-set Venn diagram is a powerful tool for visually representing the intersections,
differences, and similarities between three sets. By using overlapping circles, it helps to clarify
how elements are distributed among the sets and highlights the relationships between them.

To solve a three-set Venn diagram problem, you'll typically follow these steps:

Steps to Solve a Three-Set Venn Diagram Problem:

1. Understand the Problem:

o Identify the sets involved and what each set represents.
o Understand how the sets intersect or overlap with each other and any exclusive
conditions (e.g., people who like pizza but not burgers).

2. Draw the Venn Diagram:

o Draw three overlapping circles labeled A, B, and C for the three sets.
o The circles should overlap in such a way that they create several regions: only in
A, only in B, only in C, two-set intersections, and the three-set intersection.

3. Use the Given Information:

o You will typically be provided with information such as the total number of
elements in each set, the number of elements in the intersections, and the number
of elements in the entire universal set (if applicable).
 o Write down the known values provided in the problem.

4. Label the Regions:

o Start by labeling the regions that represent the intersection of all three sets. If the
problem provides the number of elements in the intersection of all three sets, fill
in that central region first.
o Then, label the two-set intersections (A ∩ B, B ∩ C, A ∩ C) with the provided
values. If only partial information is given, calculate the exclusive two-set
intersections by subtracting the values already used in the three-set intersection.
o After that, fill in the exclusive portions of each set (only in A, only in B, only in
C).

5. Calculate Missing Values:

o Exclusive Sets: If not all values are provided, you may need to subtract the
known values from the totals for each set. For example, if you know the total for
Set A and the number of elements in A ∩ B and A ∩ C, you can find the number
of elements in only A by subtracting the intersections from the total of Set A.
o Using the Total Universal Set: If the problem provides a total number of
elements in the universal set, you can subtract the sum of the values in the Venn
diagram from the total to determine how many elements are outside all three sets.

6. Use the Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion:

o If specific values are not given but you know the total size of the sets and
intersections, you can use the principle of inclusion-exclusion to find the values
for each region.

The formula for three sets is:

∣A∪B∪C∣=∣A∣+∣B∣+∣C∣−∣A∩B∣−∣B∩C∣−∣A∩C∣+∣A∩B∩C∣
 o This formula ensures you don’t double-count any elements. You subtract the two-
set intersections (because they are counted twice) and then add back the three-set
intersection (because it was subtracted three times).

Example Problem:

Let’s consider an example where:

 Set A: People who like pizza (total 100).

 Set B: People who like burgers (total 80).
 Set C: People who like ice cream (total 60).
 A ∩ B: People who like both pizza and burgers (total 40).
 B ∩ C: People who like both burgers and ice cream (total 30).
 A ∩ C: People who like both pizza and ice cream (total 20).
 A ∩ B ∩ C: People who like all three (total 10).

Goal: Find the number of people who like only pizza, only burgers, only ice cream, or any
combination of these.

Solution:

1. Draw the Venn Diagram with three circles labeled A, B, and C.

2. Fill in the center (A ∩ B ∩ C):
o The intersection of all three sets is 10 (people who like pizza, burgers, and ice
cream). Place 10 in the center.

3. Fill in the two-set intersections:

o A ∩ B (pizza and burgers): 40 people like both pizza and burgers, but 10 also like
ice cream. So, 40 - 10 = 30 people like only pizza and burgers. Place 30 in the A
∩ B section (excluding the center).
o B ∩ C (burgers and ice cream): 30 people like both burgers and ice cream, but 10
also like pizza. So, 30 - 10 = 20 people like only burgers and ice cream. Place 20
in the B ∩ C section.
 o A ∩ C (pizza and ice cream): 20 people like both pizza and ice cream, but 10 also
like burgers. So, 20 - 10 = 10 people like only pizza and ice cream. Place 10 in the
A ∩ C section.

4. Fill in the exclusive regions:

o People who like only pizza: Total in A = 100, but 30 like pizza and burgers, 10
like pizza and ice cream, and 10 like all three. So, 100 - (30 + 10 + 10) = 50
people like only pizza. Place 50 in the exclusive pizza region.
o People who like only burgers: Total in B = 80, but 30 like pizza and burgers, 20
like burgers and ice cream, and 10 like all three. So, 80 - (30 + 20 + 10) = 20
people like only burgers. Place 20 in the exclusive burger region.
o People who like only ice cream: Total in C = 60, but 10 like pizza and ice cream,
20 like burgers and ice cream, and 10 like all three. So, 60 - (10 + 20 + 10) = 20
people like only ice cream. Place 20 in the exclusive ice cream region.

Final Venn Diagram:

 Only A (pizza): 50
 Only B (burgers): 20
 Only C (ice cream): 20
 A ∩ B (pizza and burgers): 30
 B ∩ C (burgers and ice cream): 20
 A ∩ C (pizza and ice cream): 10
 A ∩ B ∩ C (all three): 10

Total Number of People:

Sum up all the regions:

50+20+20+30+20+10+10=16050 + 20 + 20 + 30 + 20 + 10 + 10 =
16050+20+20+30+20+10+10=160