• DECEMBER 2019

Rayleigh & Fanno Flows

Compressible Internal Flows – Lesson 2

Intro
• We have considered 1D compressible flows to be isentropic,
which implies that friction effects are small and can be
neglected.
• The flow of gases in pipelines, however, requires consideration
of both compressibility and friction effects, which produce
pressure loss in the pipe. For long pipe lengths, this loss can be
significant.
• Another important consideration in 1D flows is heat addition,
which is important for applications such as turbojet and ramjet
engine burners, where heat is added in the form of a fuel-air
combustion.
• In this lesson, we will introduce heat addition and friction effects
into our 1D compressible flow model and analyze its effects.
1D Flow with Heat Addition: Rayleigh Flow
𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐵
𝑝𝐴 𝑞 𝑝𝐵
• Consider a 1D flow with heat addition (or removal) between regions 𝐴 and 𝐵 𝑇𝐵
𝑇𝐴
𝜌𝐴 𝜌𝐵

• Governing equations: A B

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝜌𝐴 𝑉𝐴 = 𝜌𝐵 𝑉𝐵 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌𝐵 𝑉𝐵2 ℎ1 + + 𝑞 = ℎ2 +
2 2

• Assuming a calorically perfect gas, ℎ = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇, and using the definition of total temperature

𝑞 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇0𝐵 − 𝑇0𝐴 )

• This equation clearly shows that the heat addition directly changes the total temperature of the flow.
• Heat addition → 𝑇0 increases
• Heat removal → 𝑇0 decreases

• Using the isentropic relations, we can obtain the ratio of the properties between regions 𝐴 and 𝐵 in terms of
Mach numbers 𝑀𝐴 and 𝑀𝐵 .
Rayleigh Flow
• Setting sonic flow as a reference condition and 𝑀𝐴 = 1, the corresponding flow properties can be denoted by
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝∗ , 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇 ∗ , 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌∗ and 𝑇0𝐴 = 𝑇0∗ .

• We can then obtain the flow properties at any other value of M using the following relations:

2
𝑝 1+𝛾 𝑇 1+𝛾 𝜌 1 1 + 𝛾𝑀 2
= 2 =
=𝑀
𝑝∗ 1 + 𝛾𝑀2 𝑇∗ 1 + 𝛾𝑀2 𝜌∗ 𝑀2 1 + 𝛾

𝛾
𝑝0 1+𝛾 2+ 𝛾−1 2
𝑀 𝛾−1 𝑇0 1 + 𝛾 𝑀2 2
= ∗ = 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀
𝑝0∗ 1 + 𝛾𝑀2 𝛾+1 𝑇0 1 + 𝛾𝑀2 2

• The current flow setup represents a nonadiabatic process. In this case the flow properties 𝑇 ∗ , 𝑝∗ , and 𝜌∗ are
conditions in a 1D flow that would exist if enough heat is added to achieve Mach 1.
Rayleigh Flow (cont.)
• We can get some insights into the physical trends of such flows based on the ratio equations.

• Supersonic flows in region 𝐴, i.e., 𝑀𝐴 > 1, for • Subsonic flows in region 𝐴, i.e., 𝑀𝐴 < 1, for
heat addition heat addition
‐ Mach number decreases, 𝑀𝐵 < 𝑀𝐴 ‐ Mach number increases, 𝑀𝐵 > 𝑀𝐴
‐ Pressure increases, 𝑝𝐵 > 𝑝𝐴 ‐ Pressure decreases, 𝑝𝐵 < 𝑝𝐴
1
‐ Temperature increases, 𝑇𝐵 > 𝑇𝐴 ‐ Temperature increases for 𝑀𝐴 < 𝛾 and −2
1
‐ Total temperature increases, 𝑇0𝐵 > 𝑇0𝐴 −2
decreases for 𝑀𝐴 > 𝛾
‐ Total pressure decreases, 𝑝0𝐵 < 𝑝0𝐴 ‐ Total temperature increases, 𝑇0𝐵 > 𝑇0𝐴
‐ Velocity decreases, 𝑉𝐵 < 𝑉𝐴 ‐ Total pressure decreases, 𝑝0𝐵 < 𝑝0𝐴
‐ Velocity increases, 𝑉𝐵 > 𝑉𝐴

All the above trends are opposite in the case of heat removal
The Rayleigh Curve
𝑆
𝑀=1
• The figure on the right represents a 1D heat addition process on a Mollier
diagram (ℎ − 𝑠) for a given set of initial conditions. This curve is known as A’

the Rayleigh Curve.

• Heat addition always drives the Mach numbers toward 1. It decelerates a
supersonic flow and accelerates a subsonic flow.
• If point A represents the conditions in region A, then the Rayleigh curve is
the locus of all possible states in region B, where each point corresponds to
a different value of 𝑞 added or removed.
• At point 𝑆, the flow is sonic and represents the maximum entropy state for a
A
particular flow. The upper branch represents subsonic flow and the lower
branch represents supersonic flow.

• If the flow in region 𝐴 is supersonic and is represented by point A on the curve, then any heat addition will make
the conditions in region B move closer to the point S . For a certain value of 𝑞 the flow becomes sonic (Point 𝑆) and
becomes choked as no further increase in 𝑞 is possible without a drastic change in the upstream conditions.
The Rayleigh Curve (cont.)
• If 𝑞 is further increased beyond this point, then a normal shock is formed and the conditions in region A will
suddenly become subsonic.
• On the other hand, if the initial flow conditions in region A were subsonic (represented by 𝐴′) on the curve, then
upon heat addition the conditions downstream in region B will be driven toward the point 𝑆, and for a certain
value of 𝑞, the flow will reach sonic conditions.
• The flow in this situation is again choked and any further increase in heat addition is not possible without an
adjustment in the initial conditions.
• Any further increase in 𝑞 would cause a series of pressure waves to propagate upstream and help adjust the
conditions in region 𝐴 to a lower subsonic Mach number, i.e., move the point 𝐴′toward the left.
• Another interesting observation from the Rayleigh curve is that a supersonic flow can be made subsonic by first
heating it until the flow becomes sonic and then subsequently cooling it thereafter. Similarly a subsonic flow can
be made supersonic by first heating it to sonic conditions and then cooling it thereafter.
• Irrespective of the flow Mach number, heat addition always decreases the total pressure. This is significant in the
design of jet engines.
1D Flow with Friction
• Consider a compressible inviscid 1D flow with frictional effects modeled as shear stresses at the wall acting on
the fluid, with uniform properties over any cross-section.

𝑑𝑥

𝜏𝑤
A B

• We can analyze this flow following an approach like the one used for Rayleigh flow. However, this time we need
to include the frictional effects in the momentum equation:
𝐿

𝑝𝐴 𝐴𝐴 + 𝜌𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑝𝐵 𝐴𝐵 + 𝜌𝐵 𝑉𝐵2 𝐴𝐵 + න 𝜋𝐷𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝑥

0

• Since 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝜋𝐷2 /4, this can be simplified to:

𝐿
4
𝑝𝐵 − 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝐵 𝑉𝐵2 − 𝜌𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 = − න 𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝑥
𝐷
0
Fanno Flow
• As the shear stress varies with the distance along the pipe, we can simplify the integral by considering a small
section 𝑑𝑥:
2
4
𝑑𝑝 + 𝑑 𝜌𝑉 = − 𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝑥
𝐷
• Note that 𝜌𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡, and the shear stress can be expressed in terms of a friction coefficient 𝑓 using 𝜏𝑤 =
1 2
𝜌𝑢 𝑓: 1 𝑓
2
𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 = − 𝜌𝑉 2 4 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐷
• For a calorically perfect gas we can express this relation in terms of Mach number as:
−1
2 1 𝑑𝑀 𝑓
2 1 − 𝑀2 1 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀2 = 4 𝑑𝑥
𝛾𝑀 2 𝑀 𝐷
• Integrating this between the two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 gives the following equation relating the Mach numbers at two
different sections to the effect of friction between the two points:
𝑀𝐵
𝑥𝐵
1 𝛾+1 𝑀2 𝑓
− − ln =න 4 𝑑𝑥
𝛾𝑀2 2𝛾 𝛾−1 𝐷
1 + 2 𝑀2 𝑥𝐴
𝑀𝐴
Fanno Flow (cont.)
• We can use sonic flow reference conditions denoted by 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝∗ , 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇 ∗ , 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌∗ and 𝑇0𝐴 = 𝑇0∗ to obtain the
following relations:
1/2 1/2
𝑝 1 1+𝛾 𝑇 1+𝛾
= =
𝑝∗ 𝑀 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀2 𝑇∗ 2 + (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2

𝛾+1 1/2
𝑝0 1 2+ 𝛾−1 𝑀 2 2(𝛾−1) 𝜌 1 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀2
= =
𝑝0∗ 𝑀 𝛾+1 𝜌∗ 𝑀 1+𝛾

• Defining 𝑥 = 𝐿∗ as the location where the flow becomes sonic, i.e., 𝑀 = 1, and integrating the last equation
from the previous slide, we arrive at the following expression for choking length:
ҧ ∗ 1 − 𝑀2 𝛾 + 1
4𝑓𝐿 𝛾 + 1 𝑀2
= + ln
𝐷 𝛾𝑀2 2𝛾 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀2
∗
1 𝐿
where 𝑓 ҧ is defined as the average friction coefficient given by: 𝑓 ҧ = ∗ න 𝑓 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0
Fanno Flow (cont.)
• We can get some insights into the physical trends of such flows based on the ratio equations.

• Supersonic flows in region 𝐴, i.e., 𝑀𝐴 > 1, • Subsonic flows in region 𝐴, i.e., 𝑀𝐴 < 1, the
the effect of friction on the downstream flow effect of friction on the downstream flow is
is such that: such that:
‐ Mach number decreases, 𝑀𝐵 < 𝑀𝐴 ‐ Mach number increases, 𝑀𝐵 > 𝑀𝐴
‐ Pressure increases, 𝑝𝐵 > 𝑝𝐴 ‐ Pressure decreases, 𝑝𝐵 < 𝑝𝐴
‐ Temperature increases, 𝑇𝐵 > 𝑇𝐴 ‐ Temperature decreases, 𝑇𝐵 < 𝑇𝐴
‐ Total pressure decreases, 𝑝0𝐵 < 𝑝0𝐴 ‐ Total pressure decreases, 𝑝0𝐵 < 𝑝0𝐴
‐ Velocity decreases, 𝑉𝐵 < 𝑉𝐴 ‐ Velocity increases, 𝑉𝐵 > 𝑉𝐴

Note that the friction always drives the Mach Number toward 1,
accelerating a subsonic flow and decelerating a supersonic flow.
The Fanno Curve
h

• The figure on the right represents a 1D flow with frictional effects on a A’

Mollier diagram (ℎ − 𝑠) for a given set of initial conditions. This curve is
known as the Fanno Curve. S

• At the point S, the flow is sonic and represents the maximum entropy
state for a particular flow. The upper portion represents subsonic flow
and the lower portion represents supersonic flow.
• If point A represents the conditions in region A, then friction causes the
flow downstream to move closer to point S by decreasing the flow Mach A
number.
s
• Each point between A and S corresponds to a certain length of the pipe having frictional effects. For a certain value
of length, the flow reaches the point S and becomes choked, because any further increase in length is not possible
without a drastic change of the inlet conditions. An analogous observation can be made for subsonic inlet
conditions corresponding to point A’.
• Friction always causes the total pressure to decrease irrespective of the inlet conditions. Moreover, unlike the
Rayleigh curve, the upper and lower branches of the Fanno curve cannot be traversed by the same flow.
 Summary
• We have covered the analysis of 1D flows with heat addition and frictional effects.
• Heat addition always drives the flow toward sonic conditions and decreases the total pressure, which is
an important consideration in designing jet engines.
• Similarly, frictional effects drive the flow downstream toward sonic conditions and decreases the total
pressure. This is important for operating gas pipelines, etc.
• We also looked at the Rayleigh and Fanno curves and discussed the corresponding choked conditions.