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GEOMETRY OF QUANTUM STATES
An Introduction to Quantum Entanglement
GEOMETRY OF QUANTUM STATES
An Introduction to Quantum Entanglement

INGEMAR BENGTSSON AND KAROL ŻYCZKOWSKI

 cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521814515

°
C Cambridge University Press 2006

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2006

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

ISBN-13 978-0-521-81451-5 hardback

ISBN-10 0-521-81451-0 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for
external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee
that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Preface page ix

1 Convexity, colours and statistics 1

1.1 Convex sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 High-dimensional geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Colour theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 What is ‘distance’ ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Probability and statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Geometry of probability distributions 26

2.1 Majorization and partial order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Shannon entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Relative entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4 Continuous distributions and measures . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5 Statistical geometry and the Fisher–Rao metric . . . . 44
2.6 Classical ensembles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.7 Generalized entropies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3 Much ado about spheres 58

3.1 Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 Parallel transport and statistical geometry . . . . . . . 62
3.3 Complex, Hermitian and Kähler manifolds . . . . . . . 68
3.4 Symplectic manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5 The Hopf fibration of the 3-sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.6 Fibre bundles and their connections . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.7 The 3-sphere as a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.8 Cosets and all that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

4 Complex projective spaces 94

4.1 From art to mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.2 Complex projective geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.3 Complex curves, quadrics and the Segre embedding . . 100
4.4 Stars, spinors and complex curves . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.5 The Fubini–Study metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.6 CPn illustrated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
vi Contents

4.7 Symplectic geometry and the Fubini–Study measure . . 117

4.8 Fibre bundle aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.9 Grassmannians and flag manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

5 Outline of quantum mechanics 125

5.1 Quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.2 Qubits and Bloch spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3 The statistical and the Fubini–Study distances . . . . . 130
5.4 A real look at quantum dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.5 Time reversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.6 Classical and quantum states: a unified approach . . . . 139

6 Coherent states and group actions 144

6.1 Canonical coherent states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.2 Quasi-probability distributions on the plane . . . . . . . 149
6.3 Bloch coherent states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.4 From complex curves to SU (K) coherent states . . . . 161
6.5 SU (3) coherent states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

7 The stellar representation 167

7.1 The stellar representation in quantum mechanics . . . . 167
7.2 Orbits and coherent states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.3 The Husimi function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4 Wehrl entropy and the Lieb conjecture . . . . . . . . . 176
7.5 Generalized Wehrl entropies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.6 Random pure states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.7 From the transport problem to the Monge distance . . 187

8 The space of density matrices 192

8.1 Hilbert–Schmidt space and positive operators . . . . . . 192
8.2 The set of mixed states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.3 Unitary transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.4 The space of density matrices as a convex set . . . . . . 201
8.5 Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.6 An algebraic afterthought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
8.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

9 Purification of mixed quantum states 214

9.1 Tensor products and state reduction . . . . . . . . . . . 214
9.2 The Schmidt decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.3 State purification and the Hilbert–Schmidt bundle . . . 219
9.4 A first look at the Bures metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.5 Bures geometry for N = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.6 Further properties of the Bures metric . . . . . . . . . . 227
 Contents vii

10 Quantum operations 231

10.1 Measurements and POVMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.2 Algebraic detour: matrix reshaping an reshuffling . . . . 238
10.3 Positive and completely positive maps . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.4 Environmental representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.5 Some spectral properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.6 Unital and bistochastic maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
10.7 One qubit maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

11 Duality: maps versus states 258

11.1 Positive and decomposable maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
11.2 Dual cones and super-positive maps . . . . . . . . . . . 265
11.3 JamiolÃkowski isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
11.4 Quantum maps and quantum states . . . . . . . . . . . 268

12 Density matrices and entropies 273

12.1 Ordering operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
12.2 Von Neumann entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
12.3 Quantum relative entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
12.4 Other entropies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
12.5 Majorization of density matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
12.6 Entropy dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

13 Distinguishability measures 296

13.1 Classical distinguishability measures . . . . . . . . . . . 296
13.2 Quantum distinguishability measures . . . . . . . . . . 301
13.3 Fidelity and statistical distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

14 Monotone metrics and measures 311

14.1 Monotone metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
14.2 Product measures and flag manifolds . . . . . . . . . . 316
14.3 Hilbert–Schmidt measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
14.4 Bures measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
14.5 Induced measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
14.6 Random density matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
14.7 Random operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

15 Quantum entanglement 333

15.1 Introducing entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
15.2 Two qubit pure states: entanglement illustrated . . . . 336
15.3 Pure states of a bipartite system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
15.4 Mixed states and separability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
15.5 Geometry of the set of separable states . . . . . . . . . 357
viii Contents

15.6 Entanglement measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

15.7 Two-qubit mixed states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Epilogue 381

Appendix 1 Basic notions of differential geometry 382

A1.1 Differential forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
A1.2 Riemannian curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
A1.3 A key fact about mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

Appendix 2 Basic notions of group theory 385

A2.1 Lie groups and Lie algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
A2.2 SU(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
A2.3 SU(N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
A2.4 Homomorphisms between low-dimensional groups . . . 387

Appendix 3 Geometry: do it yourself 388

Appendix 4 Hints and answers to the exercises 392

References 401
Index 418
 Preface

The geometry of quantum states is a highly interesting subject in itself, but it

is also relevant in view of possible applications in the rapidly developing fields
of quantum information and quantum computing.
But what is it? In physics words like ‘states’ and ‘system’ are often used.
Skipping lightly past the question of what these words mean – it will be
made clear by practice – it is natural to ask for the properties of the space
of all possible states of a given system. The simplest state space occurs in
computer science: a ‘bit’ has a space of states that consists simply of two
points, representing on and off. In probability theory the state space of a
bit is really a line segment, since the bit may be ‘on’ with some probability
between zero and one. In general the state spaces used in probability theory
are ‘convex hulls’ of a discrete or continuous set of points. The geometry
of these simple state spaces is surprisingly subtle – especially since different
ways of distinguishing probability distributions give rise to different notions
of distance, each with their own distinct operational meaning. There is an old
idea saying that a geometry can be understood once it is understood what
linear transformations are acting on it, and we will see that this is true here
as well.
The state spaces of classical mechanics are – at least from the point of view
that we adopt – just instances of the state spaces of classical probability theory,
with the added requirement that the sample spaces (whose ‘convex hull’ we
study) are large enough, and structured enough, so that the transformations
acting on them include canonical transformations generated by Hamiltonian
functions.
In quantum theory the distinction between probability theory and mechanics
goes away. The simplest quantum state space is these days known as a ‘qubit’.
There are many physical realizations of a qubit, from silver atoms of spin 1/2
(assuming that we agree to measure only their spin) to the qubits that are
literally designed in today’s laboratories. As a state space a qubit is a three-
dimensional ball; each diameter of the ball is the state space of some classical
bit, and there are so many bits that their sample spaces conspire to form a
space – namely the surface of the ball – large enough to carry the canonical
transformations that are characteristic of mechanics. Hence the word quantum
mechanics.
It is not particularly difficult to understand a three-dimensional ball, or to
x Preface

see how this description emerges from the usual description of a qubit in terms
of a complex two-dimensional Hilbert space. In this case we can take the word
geometry literally: there will exist a one-to-one correspondence between pure
states of the qubit and the points of the surface of the Earth. Moreover, at least
as far as the surface is concerned, its geometry has a statistical meaning when
transcribed to the qubit (although we will see some strange things happening
in the interior).
As the dimension of the Hilbert space goes up, the geometry of the state
spaces becomes very intricate, and qualitatively new features arise – such as
the subtle way in which composite quantum systems are represented. Our
purpose is to describe this geometry. We believe it is worth doing. Quantum
state spaces are more wonderful than classical state spaces, and in the end
composite systems of qubits may turn out to have more practical applications
than the bits themselves already have.
A few words about the contents of our book. As a glance at the table of
contents will show, there are 15 chapters, culminating in a long chapter on
‘entanglement’. Along the way, we take our time to explore many curious
byways of geometry. We expect that you – the reader – are familiar with the
principles of quantum mechanics at the advanced undergraduate level. We do
not really expect more than that, and should you be unfamiliar with quantum
mechanics we hope that you will find some sections of the book profitable
anyway. You may start reading any chapter: if you find it incomprehensible
we hope that the cross-references and the index will enable you to see what
parts of the earlier chapters may be helpful to you. In the unlikely event that
you are not even interested in quantum mechanics, you may perhaps enjoy our
explanations of some of the geometrical ideas that we come across.
Of course there are limits to how independent the chapters can be of each
other. Convex set theory (Chapter 1) pervades all statistical theories, and
hence all our chapters. The ideas behind the classical Shannon entropy and
the Fisher–Rao geometry (Chapter 2) must be brought in to explain quantum
mechanical entropies (Chapter 12) and quantum statistical geometry (Chapters
9 and 13). Sometimes we have to assume a little extra knowledge on the part
of the reader, but since no chapter in our book assumes that all the previous
chapters have been understood, this should not pose any great difficulties.
We have made a special effort to illustrate the geometry of quantum mechanics.
This is not always easy, since the spaces that we encounter more often than
not have a dimension higher than three. We have simply done the best we
could. To facilitate self-study each chapter concludes with problems for the
reader, while some additional geometrical exercises are presented in Appendix
3.
We limit ourselves to finite-dimensional state spaces. We do this for two
reasons. One of them is that it simplifies the story very much, and the other
is that finite-dimensional systems are of great independent interest in real
experiments.
The entire book may be considered as an introduction to quantum entanglement.
This very non-classical feature provides a key resource for several modern
 Preface xi

Figure 0.1. Black and white version of the cover picture which shows the
entropy of entanglement for a 3-D cross section of the 6-D manifold of pure
states of two qubits. The hotter the colour, the more entangled the state. For
more information study Sections 15.2 and 15.3 and look at Figures 15.1 and
15.2.

applications of quantum mechanics including quantum cryptography, quantum

computing and quantum communication. We hope that our book may be useful
for graduate and postgraduate students of physics. It is written first of all for
readers who do not read the mathematical literature everyday, but we hope
that students of mathematics and of the information sciences will find it useful
as well, since they also may wish to learn about quantum entanglement.
We have been working on the book for about five years. Throughout this
time we enjoyed the support of Stockholm University, the Jagiellonian University
in Kraków, and the Center for Theoretical Physics of the Polish Academy of
Sciences in Warsaw. The book was completed at Waterloo during our stay at
the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. The motto at its main entrance
– AΣΠOY∆AΣTOΣ ΠEPI ΓEΩMETPIAΣ MH∆EIΣ EIΣITΩ1 – proved
to be a lucky omen indeed, and we are pleased to thank the Institute for
creating optimal working conditions for us, and to thank all the knowledgable
colleagues working there for their help, advice and support. We also thank
the International Journal of Modern Physics A for permission to reproduce a
number of figures.
We are grateful to Erik Aurell for his commitment to Polish–Swedish collaboration;
without him the book would never have been started. It is a pleasure to
thank our colleagues with whom we have worked on related projects: Johan
Brännlund, Åsa Ericsson, Sven Gnutzmann, Marek Kuś, Florian Mintert,
1 Let no one uninterested in geometry enter here.
xii Preface

Magdalena SinolÃȩcka, Hans-Jürgen Sommers and Wojciech SlÃomczyński. We

are grateful to them and to many others who helped us to improve the
manuscript. If it never reached perfection, it was our fault, not theirs. Let us
mention some of the others: Robert Alicki, Anders Bengtsson, Iwo BialÃynicki-
Birula, Rafalà Demkowicz-Dobrzański, Johan Grundberg, Sören Holst, Göran
Lindblad and Marcin Musz. We have also enjoyed constructive interactions
with Matthias Christandl, Jens Eisert, Peter Harremoës, MichalÃ, Pawelà and
Ryszard Horodeccy, Vivien Kendon, Artur L Ã oziński, Christian Schaffner, Paul
Slater and William Wootters.
Five other people provided indispensable support: Martha and Jonas in
Stockholm, and Jolanta, Jaś and Marysia in Kraków.

Ingemar Bengtsson Karol Życzkowski

Waterloo
12 March 2005
 1 Convexity, colours and statistics

What picture does one see, looking at a physical theory from a distance, so
that the details disappear? Since quantum mechanics is a statistical theory,
the most universal picture which remains after the details are forgotten is
that of a convex set.
Bogdan Mielnik

1.1 Convex sets

Our object is to understand the geometry of the set of all possible states of
a quantum system that can occur in nature. This is a very general question,
especially since we are not trying to define ‘state’ or ‘system’ very precisely.
Indeed we will not even discuss whether the state is a property of a thing, or
of the preparation of a thing, or of a belief about a thing. Nevertheless we can
ask what kind of restrictions are needed on a set if it is going to serve as a
space of states in the first place. There is a restriction that arises naturally
both in quantum mechanics and in classical statistics: the set must be a convex
set. The idea is that a convex set is a set such that one can form ‘mixtures’
of any pair of points in the set. This is, as we will see, how probability enters
(although we are not trying to define ‘probability’ either).
From a geometrical point of view a mixture of two states can be defined as a
point on the segment of the straight line between the two points that represent
the states that we want to mix. We insist that given two points belonging to
the set of states, the straight line segment between them must belong to the set
too. This is certainly not true of any set. But before we can see how this idea
restricts the set of states we must have a definition of ‘straight lines’ available.
One way to proceed is to regard a convex set as a special kind of subset of
a flat Euclidean space En . Actually we can get by with somewhat less. It is
enough to regard a convex set as a subset of an affine space. An affine space is
just like a vector space, except that no special choice of origin is assumed. The
straight line through the two points x1 and x2 is defined as the set of points
x = µ1 x1 + µ2 x2 , µ1 + µ2 = 1 . (1.1)
If we choose a particular point x0 to serve as the origin, we see that this is a
one parameter family of vectors x − x0 in the plane spanned by the vectors
2 Convexity, colours and statistics

Figure 1.1. Three convex sets in two dimensions, two of which are affine
transformations of each other. The new moon is not convex. An observer in
Singapore will find the new moon tilted but still not convex, since convexity is
preserved by rotations.

x1 − x0 and x2 − x0 . Taking three different points instead of two in Eq. (1.1)

we define a plane, provided the three points do not belong to a single line. A
k-dimensional plane is obtained by taking k + 1 generic points, where k < n.
An (n − 1)-dimensional plane is known as a hyperplane. For k = n we describe
the entire space En . In this way we may introduce barycentric coordinates into
an n-dimensional affine space. We select n + 1 points xi , so that an arbitrary
point x can be written as
x = µ0 x0 + µ1 x1 + · · · + µn xn , µ0 + µ1 + · · · + µn = 1 . (1.2)
The requirement that the barycentric coordinates µi add up to one ensures that
they are uniquely defined by the point x. (It also means that the barycentric
coordinates are not coordinates in the ordinary sense of the word, but if we
solve for µ0 in terms of the others then the remaining independent set is a
set of n ordinary coordinates for the n-dimensional space.) An affine map is a
transformation that takes lines to lines and preserves the relative length of line
segments lying on parallel lines. In equations an affine map is a combination
of a linear transformation described by a matrix A with a translation along a
constant vector b, so x0 = Ax + b, where A is an invertible matrix.
By definition a subset S of an affine space is a convex set if for any pair of
points x1 and x2 belonging to the set it is true that the mixture x also belongs
to the set, where
x = λ1 x1 + λ2 x2 , λ1 + λ2 = 1 , λ 1 , λ2 ≥ 0 . (1.3)
Here λ1 and λ2 are barycentric coordinates on the line through the given pair
of points; the extra requirement that they be positive restricts x to belong to
the segment of the line lying between the pair of points.
It is natural to use an affine space as the ‘container’ for the convex sets
since convexity properties are preserved by general affine transformations.
On the other hand it does no harm to introduce a flat metric on the affine
space, turning it into an Euclidean space. There may be no special significance
attached to this notion of distance, but it helps in visualizing what is going
on. From now on, we will assume that our convex sets sit in Euclidean space,
whenever it is convenient to do so.
Intuitively a convex set is a set such that one can always see the entire
 1.1 Convex sets 3

Figure 1.2. The convex sets we will consider are either convex bodies (like the
simplex on the left or the more involved example in the centre) or convex cones
with compact bases (an example is shown on the right).

set from whatever point in the set one happens to be sitting at. They can
come in a variety of interesting shapes. We will need a few definitions. First,
given any subset of the affine space we define the convex hull of this subset
as the smallest convex set that contains the set. The convex hull of a finite
set of points is called a convex polytope. If we start with p + 1 points that are
not confined to any (p − 1)-dimensional subspace then the convex polytope is
called a p-simplex. The p-simplex consists of all points of the form
x = λ0 x0 + λ1 x1 + · · · + λp xp , λ0 + λ1 + · · · + λp = 1 , λi ≥ 0 . (1.4)
(The barycentric coordinates are all non-negative.) The dimension of a convex
set is the largest number n such that the set contains an n-simplex. In discussing
a convex set of dimension n we usually assume that the underlying affine space
also has dimension n, to ensure that the convex set possesses interior points
(in the sense of point set topology). A closed and bounded convex set that has
an interior is known as a convex body.
The intersection of a convex set with some lower dimensional subspace of
the affine space is again a convex set. Given an n-dimensional convex set S
there is also a natural way to increase its dimension by one: choose a point
y not belonging to the n-dimensional affine subspace containing S. Form the
union of all the rays (in this chapter a ray means a half line), starting from
y and passing through S. The result is called a convex cone and y is called
its apex, while S is its base. A ray is in fact a one-dimensional convex cone. A
more interesting example is obtained by first choosing a p-simplex and then
interpreting the points of the simplex as vectors starting from an origin O not
lying in the simplex. Then the (p + 1)-dimensional set of points
x = λ0 x0 + λ1 x1 + · · · + λp xp , λi ≥ 0 (1.5)
is a convex cone. Convex cones have many appealing properties, including an
inbuilt partial order among its points: x ≤ y if and only if y − x belongs to
the cone. Linear maps to R that take positive values on vectors belonging to
a convex cone form a dual convex cone in the dual vector space. Since we are
in the Euclidean vector space En , we can identify the dual vector space with
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