Electrical power transmission and Distribution

Electrical energy, after being produced at generating stations (TPS, HPS,

NPS, etc.) is transmitted to the consumers for utilization. This is due to the fact
that generating stations are usually situated away from the load centers. The
network that transmits and delivers power from the producers to the consumers
is called the transmission system. Electric power transmission can also be carried
out using underground cables. But, construction of an underground transmission
line generally costs 4 to 10 times than an equivalent distance overhead line.
However, it is to be noted that, the cost of constructing underground transmission
lines highly depends upon the local environment. Also, the cost of conductor
material required is one of the most considerable charges in a transmission
system. Since conductor cost is a major part of the total cost, it has to be taken
into consideration while designing.

Main Elements of a Transmission Line

Due to the economic considerations, three-phase three-wire overhead
system is widely used for electric power transmission. Following are the main
elements of a typical power system.

Conductors: three for a single circuit line and six for a double circuit line.
Conductors must be of proper size. This depends upon its current capacity.
Usually, ACSR (Aluminium-core Steel-reinforced) conductors are used.
 Transformers: Step-up transformers are used for stepping up the voltage
level and step-down transformers are used for stepping it down. Transformers
permit power to be transmitted at higher efficiency.

Line insulators: to mechanically support the line conductors while

electrically isolating them from the support towers.

Support towers: to support the line conductors suspending in the air overhead.

Protective devices: to protect the transmission system and to ensure reliable

operation. These include ground wires, lightening arrestors, circuit breakers,
relays etc.

Voltage regulators: to keep the voltage within permissible limits at the receiving
end.

Power Distribution System

A distribution substation is located near or inside city/town/village/industrial
area. It receives power from a transmission network. The high voltage from the
transmission line is then stepped down by a step-down transformer to the primary
distribution level voltage. Primary distribution voltage is usually 11 kV, but can
range between 2.4 kV to 33 kV depending upon region or consumer.

A typical power distribution system consists of -

• Distribution substation
• Feeders
• Distribution Transformers
• Distributor conductors

Service mains conductors

Along with these, a distribution system also consists of switches, protection

equipment, measurement equipment etc.
Distribution feeders: The stepped-down voltage from the substation is carried
to distribution transformers via feeder conductors. Generally, no tappings are
taken from the feeders so that the current remains same throughout. The main
consideration in designing of a feeder conductor is its current carrying capacity.

Distribution transformer: A distribution transformer, also called as service

transformer, provides final transformation in the electric power distribution
system. It is basically a step-down 3-phase transformer. Distribution transformer
steps down the voltage to 400Y/230 volts. Here it means, voltage between any
one phase and the neutral is 230 volts and phase to phase voltage is 400 volts.
However, in USA and some other countries, 120/240 volts split-phase system is
used; where voltage between a phase and neutral is 120 volts.

Distributors: Output from a distribution transformer is carried by distributor

conductor. Tappings are taken from a distributor conductor for power supply to
the end consumers. The current through a distributor is not constant as tappings
are taken at various places throughout its length. So, voltage drop along the length
is the main consideration while designing a distributor conductor.

Service mains: It is a small cable which connects the distributor conductor at the
nearest pole to the consumer's end.
Single Line Diagram of AC Power Transmission

Generating station
• The electrical power is generated in the thermal / hydro / nuclear power
station.
• The generation of 11 kV is done by alternator.
• The generated power is transmitted to different areas which are far away
from generating station.
• The generated voltage is step up for transmission due to following reasons.
As the generating voltage increases
❖ Conductor volume ( weight ) decreases
❖ Efficiency of transmission line increases
❖ Percentage voltage drop decreases.
Primary transmission
• The step up transmission step up the generating voltage from 11 kV to 132
kV / 220 kV.
• It is transmitted by three phase, three wire supply system.
Secondary transmission
• The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving substation.
• The transmission line voltage steps down from 132 kV / 220 kV to 66 kV
at the receiving end substation.
• The electrical power is transmitted at voltage level of 66 kV to different
substation.
• This is called as secondary transmission.
Primary distribution
• The secondary transmission line terminates at the substation where the
voltage is reduced from 66 kV / 11 kV by step down transformer.
• The 11 kV voltage is transmitted to different area of city by transmission
line.
 • The primary transmission is done through 3 – phase, 3 – wire system which
supply power to HT consumers.
Secondary distribution
• The electrical power from primary distribution line is delivered to pole
mounted distribution transformer.
• The pole mounted delta / star transformer step down the 11 kV to 440 V.
• The secondary of transformer star connected with neutral which supplies
three phase four wire.
• The residential consumer gets single and three phase supply.
AC Power Supply Schemes-Based on Phase

Single Phase 3-Wire System:

Two Phase 4-Wire System

Three Phase 3-Wire System

DC Power Supply System:

The DC power supply system based on solar energy and battery storage
Solar Energy Based DC System
The DC power supply directly generated form solar panel and battery. The
generated DC power charges are control by charge charger. Then, the electrical
power is temporarily stored in battery bank. The stored energy is converted into
DC to AC with use of inverter. Finally, the distribution board is used to electrical
power transferred to all connected load.
Battery based DC supply System

Indoor substation
A substation is an installation that interconnects elements of an electric
utility’s system. These elements can include generators, transmission lines,
distribution lines and neighboring utility systems.
Functions of a Substation
A substation performs a major role in our power system. The functions of
a substation may include one or more of the following:
• To isolate a faulted element from the rest of the utility system.
• To allow an element to be disconnected from the rest of the utility
system for maintenance or repair.
• To change or transform voltage levels from one part of the utility system
to another.
• To control power flow in the utility system by switching elements into or
out of the utility system.
• To provide sources of reactive power for power factor correction or
voltage control.
 • To provide data concerning system parameters for use in operating the
utility system
Single Line Diagram for Substation
A single line diagram also called the one-line diagram is a symbolic or
graphical representation of a three-phase power system. It has a diagrammatic
representation of all the equipment and connections. The electrical elements such
as circuit breakers, transformers, bus bars, and conductors, are represented using
standardized schematic symbols so that they can be read and understood easily.
In a single line diagram, instead of representing each of three phases with
separate lines, only a single conductor is represented using a single line. A single
line diagram makes it easy to understand an electrical system, particularly in the
case of complicated systems in substations. It helps in a detailed study and
evaluation of the system and its efficiency.
Important Equipments of single-line diagram:
Isolating switch: In power substations, it is required to disconnect a part
of the system for general maintenance and repairs. This is accomplished by an
isolating switch or an isolator. An isolator is essentially a switch designed to
open a circuit under no load. For example, if the entire substation is divided
into five sections. Each section can be disconnected with the help of an isolator
for maintenance.
Busbar: A busbar is an assembly of bus conductors with associated
connection joints and insulating supports. It is a grounded metal enclosure
containing factory-mounted, bare or insulated conductors, usually copper or
aluminium bars, rods or tubes.

Circuit breaker: A circuit breaker is a circuit component that can open or close
a circuit under normal and fault conditions. It is designed such that it can be
operated manually under normal conditions and automatically under fault
conditions. It is a special type of switching device which can be operated safely
under huge current carrying conditions. It is used for timely disconnecting and
reconnecting different parts of the power system for protection and control.
Transformers: Transformers are essential components in power transmission
and distribution. They are used to step up or step down the voltage. Mostly at a
power station, a step-up transformer is used to increase the generated voltage to
a higher value. At subsequent substations, a step-down transformer is used to
reduce the supply voltage and then finally deliver it at the utilization end. A
current transformer is a step-up or step-down transformer that multiplies the
current to a known ratio. For example, if a current transformer has a rating of
100/5A, the current on the primary side is 100A and the secondary is 5A. It is a
type of instrument transformer. Another type of instrument transformer is the
voltage transformer or potential transformer.
 The 3-phase, 3-wire 11 kV line is tapped and brought to the gang operating
switch installed near the substation. The gang operated switch (G.O. switch)
consists of isolators connected to each phase of the 3-phase line. From the G.O.
switch, the 11 kV line is brought to the indoor substation as an underground cable.
It is then connected to the high voltage or primary side of the transformer (11
kV/400 V) via the 11 kV Oil Circuit Breaker. The transformer steps down the
voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire.
A single-phase residential load can be connected between any one phase and
neutral. A 3-phase, 400 V motor load is to be connected across 3-phase lines
directly. Current Transformers are located at suitable places in the substation
circuit and supply for the metering and indicating.
The secondary of the main transformer supplies to the busbars through the main
circuit breaker. From the busbars 400V, 3-phase, 4 wire supply is given to
customers via 400V Circuit breaker. The voltage between any two phases is
400V, and that between one phase and one neutral is 230V.
Earthing
Earthing is defined as “the process in which the instantaneous discharge
of the electrical energy takes place by transferring charges directly to the
earth through low resistance wire.”
Low resistance earthing wire is chosen to provide the least resistance path for
leakage of fault current.

There are mainly 4 types of Earthing systems in India, Plate Earthing, Pipe
Earthing, Mat Earthing, and Rod Earthing.

Pipe earthing is one of the popular earthing systems in India that suits every soil
type. Earthing in large-scale residential, as well as commercial areas, prevents
mishappenings on account of electrical shock. It protects your building and the
electric boxes that are home to different types of electrical wires or cables.
Pipe earthing is joining a steel pipe with the earth’s electrical conductors. An Iron
and steel pipe can transfer fault currents in an electrical system efficiently.
Earthing involves discharging electricity to the earth via low resistance electrical
cables to prevent voltage surges resulting from an improper earthing system.
Short circuits are a result of loose insulation and may occur anytime. However, a
grounding wire may prevent these damages that can also be easily removed by
technicians later.

Types of Earthing:
Electrical grounding, also known as earthing, is done in several ways like
housing, wiring, electrical device, and more. The different types of electric
earthing systems in India are:
1: Pipe Earthing
Pipe earthing is a common form of earthing in India that uses a steel pipe to
connect with the earth’s electrical conductors. The size of the iron pipe depends
on the soil moisture and the magnitude of the current. The soil’s moisture will
decide the depth for the placement of the steel pipe.
2: Plate Earthing
Plate earthing is where a copper plate is distanced at 3 meters from the earth and
vertically placed in the ground pit.
3: Coil Earthing
Coil earthing connects vertical and horizontal electrodes – a horizontal
electrode represses the current generated due to a massive fault while the vertical
electrode dissipates the current into the earth.
4: Rod Earthing
Rod earthing is the safest earthing technology that uses low-resistant copper
earth electrodes that are specially manufactured to deliver a premium quality
earthing system for solar power plants. It is a dark grey material that is mixed
with cement and water to produce safe and secure earthing system.
 The techniques of earthing are conventional earthing and maintenance-free
earthing. Every electrical installation requires a grounding system that is essential
for life safety, offering a quality power supply and preventing any damage caused
due to lightning or fault. Earthing transfers the extra voltage to the earth with the
help of a wire that reduces overloading chances and saves a lot of money on the
electricity bills.
Some factors affect earthing installations like soil condition, dissolved salts, soil
resistivity, soil moisture, climatic conditions, earth pit’s location, physical
composition, and more. Earthing requires using a non-current device to discharge
electricity directly to the ground. Proper installation can save you from shocks
and, a low-resistant cable, earth rods, and conductors can work effectively in the
electricity transmission process.
Importance of Earthing
The main motive of earthing is to avoid any electric shock that may occur
due to the extra current produced from the ground. Planned insulation can restrict
any voltage from the ground. Whenever a metallic element comes in contact with
a wire, it starts collecting extra current resulting in severe electric shock.
Electrical appliances are grounded to discharge the electricity directly to the
ground.
Benefits of grounding are – voltage stabilization, safety from overvoltage,
and prevention from any severe damage. The essential components used in the
earthing system are earth cable, earthing joint, and earth plate.
Many electronic, electrical, and civil engineers handle electrical earthing that
prevents damages or some breakdown in any of the electrical instruments, but the
safety of these workers also matters. Earthing is the work of skilled technicians
and therefore requires proper planning and use of quality devices to execute an
electrical earthing project.
Photovoltaic Cell or Solar Cell:
A photovoltaic cell is a specialized semiconductor device that operates on
the principle of the photovoltaic effect.
The photovoltaic effect is a process in which a light-sensitive
semiconductor converts the visible light into a voltage or into a direct current.
• Some photovoltaic cells convert even infrared or ultraviolet radiation into
direct current.
• The photovoltaic cells (PV) are usually made of silicon doped with other
elements. New materials such as copper indium diselenide (CIS), gallium
arsenide(GaAs), and cadmium telluride (CdTe) have also been developed
for use in photovoltaic cells.
Circuit symbol of Photovoltaic Cell:
Construction and working of Photovoltaic Cell
• In the construction of a photovoltaic cell (PV), two separate
semiconductors are sandwiched together forming a p-n junction at the
interface. In the device, although both materials are electrically neutral, n-
type has excess electrons and p-type silicon has excess holes.
• The device is constructed in such a way that when the junction is exposed
to visible light, a voltage difference is produced between the p-type and n-
type materials. This is due to the flow of excess electrons from the n-type
material to the p-type material, and the holes thereby vacated from p-type
material flow towards n-type material.
• Due to these electrons and hole fowl, the two semiconductors act as a
battery creating an electric field at the junction.
• Electrodes connected to the semiconductor layer, allow current to be drawn
from the device which is proportional to the intensity of incident light.

Advantages
1. The photovoltaic cell does not require any external battery for its own
operation, i.e. it is self-generating.
2. Since solar energy is unlimited, once the photovoltaic system is installed,
it can produce energy years together.
 3. The maintenance cost is minimum.
4. It is non-polluting.

Application

1. The photovoltaic cells are used in low-power devices such as light meters.
2. They are used in solar-powered scientific calculators.
3. A large set of photovoltaic cells can be connected together to form solar
modules, panels, or arrays.

Solar Cell-Based Electric System

Electric vehicle
Electric vehicle have an electric motor instead of an internal combustion
engine. The electric vehicle uses a large battery pack to power the electric motor.
Charging station or wall outlet provides charging of the large traction battery.
The proliferation of electric cars is a little difficult, because charging station
were not beeing built everywhere.
ELECTRIC CAR CONSIST OF:
1. Battery;
2. Charge port;
3. DC/DC Convertor;
4. Electric traction motor;
5. Onboard charger;
6. Power electronics controller;
7. Thermal system;
8. Traction battery pack;
9. Transmission.
Battery (all-electric auxiliary) main purpose of the auxiliary battery is
providing electricity to power vehicle accessories in an electric vehicle.
Every electric car has got own Charge Port, that allows the vehicle to connect
to an external power supply in order to charge the traction battery pack
Vehicle accessories work need a low-voltage DC power, so electric car has
mounted DC/DC converter. It`s nessasary Because device provides normal
vehicle accessories work and recharge the auxiliary battery.
Electric traction motor drives the electric vehicle’s wheels with using power
from the traction battery pack.
Onboard charger converts AC electricity to DC power for the traction battery
charging. Also It has control function of main battery characteristics such as
voltage, temperature, current, and state of charge while charging the pack.
Power electronics controller manages the flow of electrical energy delivered
by the traction battery. Also it controlling the speed of the electric traction motor
and the torque it produces.
Cooling system (thermal system) maintains a proper operating temperature
range of the electric motor, power electronics, and other components.
Traction battery pack provides stores electricity for use by the electric traction
motor.
Electric transmission transfers mechanical power from the electric traction
motor to the drive wheels.
Types of Electrical Vehicles