52 Non-relativistic flows of perfect fluids

IV.4.3 Two-dimensional potential flows

We now focus on two-dimensional potential flows, for which the velocity field—and all other
fields—only depend on two coordinates. The latter will either be Cartesian coordinates (x, y), which
are naturally combined into a complex variable z = x + iy, or polar coordinates (r, θ). Throughout
this Section, the time variable t will not be denoted: apart from possibly influencing the boundary
conditions, it plays no direct role in the determination of the velocity potential.
IV.4.3 a Complex flow potential and complex flow velocity
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Let us first introduce a few useful auxiliary functions, which either simplify the description of
two-dimensional potential flows, or allow one to “generate” such flows at will.
Stream function
Irrespective of whether the motion is irrotational or not, in an incompressible two-dimensional
flow one can define a unique (up to an additive constant) stream function (xliv) ψ(x, y) such that

∂ψ(x, y) ∂ψ(x, y)
vx (x, y) = − , vy (x, y) = (IV.36)
∂y ∂x

at every point (x, y). Indeed, when the above two relations hold, the incompressibility criterion
~ ·~v(x, y) = 0 is fulfilled automatically.
∇
Remark: As in the case of the relation between the flow velocity field and the corresponding potential,
Eq. (IV.28), the overall sign in the relation between ~v(~r) and ψ(~r) is conventional. Yet if one wishes
to define the complex flow potential as in Eq. (IV.39) below, the relative sign of ϕ(~r) and ψ(~r) is
fixed.
The stream function for a given planar fluid motion is such that the lines along which ψ(~r) is
constant are precisely the streamlines of the flow.
Let d~x(λ) denote a differential line element of a curve ~x(λ) of constant ψ(~r), i.e. a curve along
~ = ~0. Then d~x(λ) · ∇ψ~ ~x(λ) = 0 at every point on the line: using relations (IV.36),


which ∇ψ
one recovers Eq. (I.15b) characterizing a streamline. 
Stream functions are also defined in three-dimensional flows, yet in that case two of them are
needed. More precisely, one can find two linearly independent functions ψ1 (~r), ψ2 (~r), such
that the streamlines are the intersections of the surfaces of constant ψ1 and of constant ψ2 .
~ 1 (~r) × ∇ψ
That is, they are such that the flow velocity obeys ~v(~r) ∝ ∇ψ ~ 2 (~r), with an a priori
position-dependent proportionality factor—which can be taken identically equal to unity in an
incompressible flow.
Consider now a potential flow, i.e. which is not only incompressible, but also irrotational. For
such a two-dimensional flow, the condition of vanishing vorticity reads
∂ vy (x, y) ∂ vx (x, y)
ω z (x, y) = − = 0,
∂x ∂y
which under consideration of relations (IV.36) gives

4ψ(x, y) = 0 (IV.37a)

at every point (x, y). That is, the stream function obeys the Laplace equation—just like the velocity
potential ϕ(~r).
A difference with ϕ(~r) arises with respect to the boundary conditions. At an obstacle or walls,
modeled by a “surface” S—in the plane R2 , this surface is rather a curve—, the impermeability
condition implies that the velocity is tangential to S, i.e. S coincides with a streamline:
ψ(x, y) = constant on S (IV.37b)

(xliv)
Stromfunktion
IV.4 Potential flows 53

For a flow on an unbounded domain, the velocity is assumed to be uniform at infinity, ~v(x, y) →~v∞
which is the case if
y x
ψ(x, y) ∼ v∞ x − v∞ y (IV.37c)
|~r|→∞

x , vy the components of ~v .
with v∞ ∞ ∞
The boundary conditions (IV.37b)–(IV.37c) on the stream function are thus dissimilar from the
corresponding conditions (IV.32a)–(IV.32b) on the velocity potential. In particular, the condition
at an obstacle involves the stream function itself, instead of its derivative: the Laplace differential
equation (IV.37a) with conditions (IV.37b)–(IV.37c) represents a Dirichlet problem,(r) or boundary
value problem of the first kind, instead of a Neumann problem.

Complex flow potential

In the case of a two-dimensional potential flow, both the velocity potential φ(x, y) and the stream
function ψ(x, y) are so-called harmonic functions, i.e. they are solutions to the Laplace differential
equation, see Eqs. (IV.31) and (IV.37a). In addition, gathering Eqs. (IV.28) and (IV.36), one sees
that they satisfy at every point (x, y) the identities
∂φ(x, y) ∂ψ(x, y)  ∂φ(x, y) ∂ψ(x, y) 
= −vx (x, y) , = −vy (x, y) .
 
= =− (IV.38)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
The relations between the partial derivatives of φ and ψ are precisely the Cauchy–Riemann equations
obeyed by the corresponding derivatives of the real and imaginary parts of a holomorphic function
of a complex variable z = x + iy. That is, the identities (IV.38) suggest the introduction of a
complex (flow ) potential

φ(z) ≡ ϕ(x, y) + iψ(x, y) with z = x + iy (IV.39)

which will automatically be holomorphic on the domain where the flow is defined. The functions ϕ
and ψ are then said to be conjugate to each other. In line with that notion, the curves in the plane
along which one of the functions is constant are the field lines of the other, and reciprocally.
Besides the complex potential φ(z), one also defines the corresponding complex velocity as the
negative of its derivative, namely

dφ(z)
w(z) ≡ − = vx (x, y) − ivy (x, y) (IV.40)
dz

where the second identity follows at once from the definition of φ and the relations between ϕ or ψ
and the flow velocity. Like φ(z), the complex velocity w(z) is an analytic function of z.
IV.4.3 b Elementary two-dimensional potential flows
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
As a converse to the above construction of the complex potential, the real and imaginary parts
of any analytic function of a complex variable are harmonic functions, i.e. any analytical function
φ(z) defines a two-dimensional potential flow on its domain of definition. Accordingly, we now
investigate a few “basic” complex potentials and the flows they describe.

Uniform flow
The simplest possibility is that of a linear complex potential:

φ(z) = −v e−iα z with v ∈ R, α ∈ R. (IV.41)

(r)
P. G. (Lejeune-)Dirichlet, 1805–1859
54 Non-relativistic flows of perfect fluids

y 
 Using for instance Eq. (IV.40), this trivially leads to a uniform
 6  

33
 3 3 
   
 333 velocity field making an angle α with the x-direction,
    α 
 

33    
 333 33x
- ~v(x, y) = cos α~ex + sin α~ey v,
       
3
3
      
 33333

3 as illustrated in Fig. IV.8, in which a few streamlines are dis-
    
3
3 3 333 played, to which the equipotential lines (not shown) of ϕ(x, y)
are perpendicular.
Figure IV.8

Flow source or sink

Another flow with “simple” streamlines is that defined by the complex potential(22)
Q
log(z − z0 ) with Q ∈ R, z0 ∈ C.
φ(z) = − (IV.42a)
2π
The resulting complex flow velocity
Q
w(z) = (IV.42b)
2π(z − z0 )
has a simple pole at z = z0 . Using polar coordinates (r, θ) centered on that pole, the flow velocity
is purely radial:
Q
~v(r, θ) = ~er (IV.42c)
2πr
as displayed in the left panel of Fig. IV.9 while the flow potential and the stream function are
Q Q
ϕ(r, θ) = − log r, ψ(r, θ) = − θ. (IV.42d)
2π 2π
By computing the flux of velocity through a closed curve circling the pole—e.g. a circle centered
on z0 , which is an equipotential of ϕ—, one finds that Q represents the mass flow rate through that
curve. If Q is positive, there is a source of flow at z0 ; is Q is negative, there is a sink there, in which
the fluid disappears.

y y
6 6

- -
x x
Figure IV.9 – Streamlines (full) and equipotential lines (dashed) for a flow source (IV.42c)
(left) and a pointlike vortex (IV.43b) (right).

(22)
The reader unwilling to take the logarithm of a dimensionful quantity—to which she is entirely entitled—may
divide z − z0 resp. r by a length in the potentials (IV.42a) and (IV.43a) resp. (IV.42d) and (IV.43c), or write the
difference in Eq. (IV.45) as the logarithm of a quotient. She will however quickly convince herself that this does
not affect the velocities (IV.42b) and (IV.43b), nor the potential (IV.44a).
IV.4 Potential flows 55

Pointlike vortex
The “conjugate” flow to the previous one, i.e. that for which ϕ and ψ are exchanged, corresponds
to the complex potential(22)
iΓ
φ(z) = log(z − z0 ) with Γ ∈ R, z0 ∈ C. (IV.43a)
2π
Using as above polar coordinates (r, θ) centered on z0 , the flow velocity is purely tangential,
Γ
~v(r, θ) = ~eθ , (IV.43b)
2πr2
as shown in Fig. IV.9 (right), where the basis vector ~eθ is normalized to r, cf. Eq. (C.6). The
complex potential (IV.43a) thus describes a vortex situated at z0 .
In turn, the velocity potential and stream function read
Γ Γ
ϕ(r, θ) = − θ, ψ(r, θ) = log r, (IV.43c)
2π 2π
to be compared with those for a flow source, Eq. (IV.42d).
Remark: When writing down the complex velocity potentials (IV.42a) or (IV.43a), we left aside the
issue of the (logarithmic!) branch point at z = z0 —and we did not specify which branch of the
logarithm we consider. Now, either potential corresponds to a flow that is actually defined on a
doubly connected region, since the velocity diverges at z = z0 . From the discussion in § IV.4.2 b, on
such domains the potential is a multivalued object, yet this is irrelevant for the physical quantities,
namely the velocity field, which remains uniquely defined at each point. This is precisely what is
illustrated here by the different branches of the logarithm, which differ by a constant multiple of
2iπ that does not affect the derivative.

Flow dipole
A further possible irrotational and incompressible two-dimensional flow is that defined by the
complex potential
µ eiα
φ(z) = with µ ∈ R, α ∈ R, z0 ∈ C (IV.44a)
z − z0
leading to the complex flow velocity
µ eiα
w(z) = . (IV.44b)
(z − z0 )2

Again, both φ(z) and w(z) are singular at z0 .

Using polar coordinates (r, θ) centered on z0 , the flow velocity reads
µ µ
~v(r, θ) = 2 cos(θ − α)~er + 3 sin(θ − α)~eθ , (IV.44c)
r r
which shows that the angle α gives the overall orientation of the flow with respect to the x-direction.
Setting for simplicity α = 0 and coming back momentarily to Cartesian coordinates, the flow
potential and stream function corresponding to Eq. (IV.44a) are
µx µy
ϕ(x, y) = 2 2
, ψ(x, y) = − 2 . (IV.44d)
x +y x + y2
Thus, the streamlines are the curves x2 + y 2 = const. × y, i.e. they are circles centered on the y-axis
and tangent to the x-axis, as represented in Fig. IV.10, where everything is tilted by an angle α.
One can check that the flow dipole (IV.44a) is actually the superposition of a pair of infinitely
close source and sink with the same mass flow rate in absolute value:
µ
log z − z0 + ε e−iα − log z − z0 − ε e−iα .



φ(z) = lim (IV.45)
ε→0 2ε
56 Non-relativistic flows of perfect fluids

y
6

α
-
x

Figure IV.10 – Streamlines for a flow dipole (IV.44a) centered on the origin.

This is clearly fully analogous to an electric dipole potential being the superposition of the potentials
created by electric charges +q and −q—and justifies the denomination “dipole flow”.
One can similarly define higher-order multipoles: flow quadrupoles, octupoles, . . . , for which
the order of the pole of the velocity at z0 increases (order 1 for a source or a sink, order 2 for a
dipole, order 3 for a quadrupole, and so on).
Remarks:
∗ The complex flow potentials considered until now—namely those of uniform flows (IV.41), sources
or sinks (IV.42a), pointlike vortices (IV.43a), and dipoles (IV.44a) or multipoles—and their super-
positions are the only two-dimensional flows valid on an unbounded domain.
As a matter of fact, demanding that the flow velocity ~v(~r) be uniform at infinity and that the
complex velocity w(z) be analytic except at a finite number of singularities—say only one, at z0 ,
to simplify the argumentation—, then w(z) may be expressed as a superposition of integer powers
of 1/(z − z0 ): ∞
X a−p
w(z) = , (IV.46a)
p=0
(z − z0 ) p
since any positive power of (z − z0 ) would be unbounded when |z| → ∞. Integrating over z, see
Eq. (IV.40), the allowed complex potentials are of the form
∞
X p a−p−1
φ(z) = −a0 z − a−1 log(z − z0 ) + . (IV.46b)
p=1
(z − z0 )p

∗ Conversely, the reader can check—by computing the integral of w(z) along a contour at infinity—
that the total mass flow rate and circulation of the velocity field for a given flow are respectively
the real and imaginary parts of the residue a−1 in the Laurent series of its complex velocity w(z),
i.e. are entirely governed by the source/sink term (IV.42a) and vortex term (IV.43a) in the complex
potential.
∗ Eventually, the singularities that arise in the flow velocity will in practice not be a problem, since
these points will not be part of the physical flow, as we shall see on an example in § IV.4.3 c.

Flow inside or around a corner

As a last example, consider the complex flow potential
1
φ(z) = A e−iα (z − z0 )n with A ∈ R, α ∈ R, n ≥ , z0 ∈ C. (IV.47a)
2
IV.4 Potential flows 57

Figure IV.11 – Streamlines for the flow defined by potential (IV.47a) with from top to bottom
and from left to right n = 3, 32 , 1, 34 , 53 and 12 .

Except in the case n = 1, this potential cannot represent a flow on an unbounded domain, since
one easily checks that the velocity is unbounded as |z| goes to infinity. The interest of this potential
lies rather the behavior in the vicinity of z = z0 .
As a matter, writing down the flow potential and the stream function in a system of polar
coordinates centered on z0 ,
ϕ(r, θ) = A rn cos(nθ − α), ψ(r, θ) = A rn sin(nθ − α) (IV.47b)
shows that they both are (π/n)-periodic functions of the polar angle θ. Thus the flow on the
domain D delimited by the streamlines ψ(r, α) and ψ(r, α + π/n) is isolated from the motion in the
remainder of the complex plane. One may therefore assume that there are walls along these two
streamlines, and that the complex potential (IV.47a) describes a flow between them.
For n = 1, one recovers the uniform flow (IV.41)—in which we are free to put a wall along any
streamline, restricting the domain D to a half plane instead of the whole plane. If n > 1, π/n is
smaller than π and the domain D is comprised between a half-plane; in that case, the fluid motion
is a flow inside a corner. On the other hand, for 21 ≤ n < 1, π/n > π, so that the motion is a flow
past a corner.
The streamlines for the flows obtained with six different values for n are displayed in Fig. IV.11,
namely two flows in corners with angles π/3 and 2π/3, a uniform flow in the upper half plane, two
flows past corners with inner angles 2π/3 and π/3, and a flow past a flat plaque, corresponding
respectively to n = 3, 23 , 1, 43 , 35 and 21 .
IV.4.3 c Two-dimensional flows past a cylinder
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Thanks to the linearity of the Laplace differential equations, one may add “elementary” solutions
of the previous paragraph to obtain new solutions, which describe possible two-dimensional flows.
We now present two examples, which represent flows coming from infinity, where they are uniform,
and falling on a cylinder—either immobile or rotating around its axis.

Acyclic flow
Let us superpose the complex potentials for a uniform flow (IV.41) along the x-direction and a
flow dipole (IV.44a) situated at the origin and making an angle α = π with the vector ~ex :
R2
 
φ(z) = −v∞ z + , (IV.48a)
z
where the dipole strength µ was written as R2 v∞ . Adopting polar coordinates (r, θ), this ansatz
58 Non-relativistic flows of perfect fluids

y
6

-
x
Figure IV.12 – Streamlines for the acyclic potential flow past a cylinder (IV.48a).

leads to the velocity potential and stream function

R2 R2
   
ϕ(r, θ) = −v∞ r + cos θ, ψ(r, θ) = −v∞ r − sin θ. (IV.48b)
r r
One sees that the circle r = R is a line of constant ψ, i.e. a streamline. This means that the flow
outside that circle is decoupled from that inside. In particular, one may assume that the space inside
the circle is filled by a solid obstacle, a “cylinder”,(23) without changing the flow characteristics on
R2 deprived from the disk r < R. The presence of this obstacle has the further advantage that it
“hides” the singularity of the potential or the resulting velocity at z = 0, by cleanly removing it
from the domain over which the flow is defined. This is illustrated, together with the streamlines
for this flow, in Fig. IV.12.
From the complex potential (IV.48a) follows at once the complex velocity
R2
 
w(z) = v∞ 1 − 2 , (IV.49a)
z
which in polar coordinates gives
R2 R2
    
~eθ
~v(r, θ) = v∞ 1 − 2 cos θ~er − 1 + 2 sin θ . (IV.49b)
r r r
The latter is purely tangential for r = R, in agreement with the fact that the cylinder surface is a
streamline. The flow velocity even fully vanishes at the points with r = R and θ = 0 or π, which
are thus stagnation points.(xlv)
Assuming that the motion is stationary, one can calculate the force exerted on the cylinder by
the flowing fluid. Invoking the Bernoulli equation (IV.11)—which holds since the flow is steady
and incompressible—and using the absence of vorticity, which leads to the constant being the same
throughout the flow, one obtains
1 1
P (~r) + ρ~v(~r)2 = P ∞ + ρv∞
2
,
2 2
(23)
The denomination is motivated by the fact that even though the flow characteristics depend on two spatial
coordinates only, the actual flow might take in place in a three-dimensional space, in which case the obstacle is
an infinite circular cylinder.
(xlv)
Staupunkte
IV.4 Potential flows 59

where P ∞ denotes the pressure at infinity. That is, at each point on the surface of the cylinder
1 
2 1
−~v(R, θ)2 = P ∞ + ρv∞
2
1 − 4 sin2 θ ,


P (R, θ) = P ∞ + ρ v∞
2 2
where the second identity follows from Eq. (IV.49b). The resulting stress vector on the vector at
a given θ is directed radially towards the cylinder center, T~s (R, θ) = −P (R, θ)~er (R, θ). Integrating
over θ ∈ [0, 2π], the total force on the cylinder due to the flowing fluid simply vanishes—in conflict
with the intuition—, phenomenon which is known as d’Alembert paradox .(s)
The intuition according to which the moving fluid should exert a force on the immobile obstacle
is good. What we find here is a failure of the perfect-fluid model, which is in that case too
idealized, by allowing the fluid to slip without friction along the obstacle.

Cyclic flow
To the flow profile which was just considered, we add a pointlike vortex (IV.43a) situated at the
origin
R2
 
iΓ z
φ(z) = −v∞ z + + log , (IV.50a)
z 2π R
where we have divided z by R in the logarithm to have a dimensionless argument, although this
plays no role for the velocity. Comparing with the acyclic flow, which models fluid motion around
a motionless cylinder, the complex potential may be seen as a model for the flow past a rotating
cylinder, as in the case of the Magnus effect (§ IV.2.2 d).
Adopting polar coordinates (r, θ), the velocity potential and stream function read
R2 R2
   
Γ Γ r
ϕ(r, θ) = −v∞ r + cos θ − θ, ψ(r, θ) = −v∞ r − sin θ + log , (IV.50b)
r 2π r 2π R

so that the circle r = R remains a streamline, delimiting a fixed obstacle.

The resulting velocity field reads in complex form
R2
 
iΓ
w(z) = v∞ 1 − 2 − , (IV.51a)
z 2πz
and in polar coordinates
R2 R2
    
Γ ~eθ
~v(r, θ) = v∞ 1 − 2 cos θ~er − 1 + 2 − sin θ . (IV.51b)
r r 2πrv∞ r
The latter is purely tangential for r = R, in agreement with the fact that the cylinder surface is a
streamline.
One easily checks that when the strength of the vortex is not too large, namely Γ ≤ 4πR v∞ , the
flow has stagnations points on the surface of the cylinder—two if the inequality holds in the strict
sense, a single degenerate point if Γ = 4πR v∞ —, as illustrated in Fig. IV.13. If Γ > 4πR v∞ , the
flow defined by the complex potential (IV.50a) still has a stagnation point, yet now away from the
surface of the rotating cylinder, as exemplified in Fig. IV.14.
In either case, repeating the same calculation based on the Bernoulli equation as for the acyclic
flow allows one to derive the force exerted by the fluid on the cylinder. The resulting force no longer
vanishes, but equals −Γρv∞ ~ey on a unit length of the cylinder, where ρ is the mass density of the
fluid and ~ey the unit basis vector in the y-direction. This is in line with the arguments presented in
§ IV.2.2 d.

(s)
J. le Rond d’Alembert, 1717–1783
60 Non-relativistic flows of perfect fluids

Figure IV.13 – Streamlines for the cyclic potential flow past a (rotating) cylinder (IV.50a)
with Γ/(4πR v∞ ) = 0.25 (left) or 1 (right).

Figure IV.14 – Streamlines for the cyclic potential flow past a (rotating) cylinder (IV.50a)
with Γ/(4πR v∞ ) = 4.

IV.4.3 d Conformal deformations of flows

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
... will be discussed.