BACTERIA

MORPHOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF BACTERIA

Bacteria are microorganisms with simple and primitive forms of cellular organisms. They are
unicellular but cells may grow attached to one another in form of clusters, chains, rods, filaments
or in form of mycelium in higher bacteria.

Bacterial morphology includes the shape, arrangement, and size of the cells. The three basic
shapes of bacteria are cocci, bacilli, and spiral. Spherical-shaped bacteria are cocci. Rod-shaped
bacteria are bacilli. Helical-shaped bacteria are spiral.

The shape of bacterial cells is inherited and subject to the cell wall and cytoskeleton structure.
The bacterial shape plays a role in how well bacteria perform life functions such as obtaining
nutrition and avoiding predators. In pathogenic bacteria, the shape contributes to the ability to
cause disease. The most common shapes of bacteria are cocci, bacilli, and spiral.

Spiral shaped bacteria, or spirilla, are a major classification of bacteria that have a twisted,
corkscrew-like shape. The classification is largely based on their physical structure. They are
unique and identifiable due to their spiral or helical shape, and their ability to move with a
twisting motion.

This unique shape and movement mechanism allow these bacteria to be highly efficient in
environments with low nutrient concentrations. Spirilla use their flagella, long whip-like
appendages, to move in a corkscrew pattern, which can be a highly effective method for moving
through more viscous mediums, like mucus or tissues.

The cells range from 0.3x 0.8 micrometers to 10-25 micrometers in size

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Bacteria have rigid cell walls which maintain the characteristic shapes. The cell wall is made up
of peptidoglycan (murein/mureinic acid) which is a complex carbohydrate. In addition, they have
a cell membrane which is semipermeable.

Inside the cell membrane, there is a protoplasm which has ribosomes that are the main features
of a bacteria and a nuclear material.

Bacteria contain myososomes (membraneous material containing waste material or lytic

enzyme).

Some bacteria have capsules (mucillagenous wall material) that is outside the cell wall which is
not essential to the lives of bacteria.

They reproduce by simple binary fission without evidence of mitosis. They carry their genes on a
linear or circular filament which is equivalent to a single chromosome.

Certain species of bacteria form endospores which are resistant resting phases of bacteria.

Many species of bacteria are motile by means of flagella. Some are motile by active flexon of the
cell body and others by gliding process. Some are non-motile.

Most of the bacteria are saprophytic but some are parasitic.

Special staining methods show that they possess a central nuclear body containing the DNA.

Gram staining differentiates bacteria into two major groups namely:

1. Gram positive (the cells appear blue)

2.Gram negative (the cells appear red)

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA

Bacteria are widely used in:

Nitrogen fixation and soil fertility: Certain bacteria are helpful in the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen. Azotobacter and Clostridium are present in the soil and help in nitrogen fixation.
Species of Rhizobium bacteria are present in the root nodules of leguminous plants, and they
increase the soil’s nitrogen content by fixing up atmospheric nitrogen. The process is known as
symbiotic nitrogen fixation.

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Several cyanobacteria also help in nitrogen fixation. Nostoc, Anabaena, etc., possess heterocysts
with nitrogenase enzymes and fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic conditions. Nostoc is
associated with the coralloid roots of Cycas and helps in this process. Anabaena azollae is
associated with water fern, Azolla, and helps in nitrogen fixation in paddy fields.

Nitrogen Cycling: Nitrification is one of the most critical steps in the nitrogen cycle, performed
by nitrifying bacteria. Nitrifying bacteria are chemolithotrophic organisms that include the
genera Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus, Nitrobacter, Nitrobacillus, etc. These bacteria get their
energy by the oxidation of inorganic nitrogen compounds.

The denitrifying bacteria, like Pseudomonas denitrificans, Thiobacillus denitrificans, transform

the nitrates to atmospheric nitrogen.

Biogas Production: Biogas is a standard domestic and industrial fuel, which contains

methane, carbon dioxide, Sulphur compounds, and traces of other gases like hydrogen CO,
nitrogen, etc.

Fermentation processes, such as brewing, baking, cheese and butter manufacturing, Bacteria,
often Lactobacillus in combination with yeasts and molds, have been used for thousands of years
in the preparation of fermented foods such as cheese, pickles, soy sauce, sauerkraut, vinegar,
wine, and yogurt.

Chemical manufacturing such as ethanol, acetone, organic acid, enzymes, perfumes etc. In the
chemical industry, bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure
chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrochemicals.

Medicine. Some bacteria have been exploited to produce antibiotics. Antibiotics like
Tetraramycin, Streptomycin, Tetracycline, Aureomycin, Neomycin are obtained from different
bacterial species.

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Vaccines: Several vaccines have been developed from either killed or attenuated (living but
multiplying at low rates) bacteria. For example, tuberculosis vaccine, whooping cough vaccine,
plague vaccine, DTP (Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis) vaccine, pneumonia vaccine are all
prepared with the help of bacteria.

Microbial mining, which is the bacteria and other microorganisms are cultured in container and
then used to bring these processes e.g., copper extraction.

Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering is the manipulation of genes. It is also called recombinant DNA technology.
In genetic engineering, pieces of DNA (genes) are introduced into a host by means of a carrier
(vector) system. The foreign DNA becomes a permanent feature of the host, being replicated and
passed on to daughter cells along with the rest of its DNA. Bacterial cells are transformed and
used in production of commercially important products. The examples are production of human
insulin (used against diabetes), human growth hormone (somatotrophin used to treat pituitary
dwarfism), and infections which can be used to help fight viral diseases.

Fibre retting

Bacterial populations, especially that of Clostridium butyclicum, are used to separate fibres of
jute, hemp, flax, etc, the plants are immersed in water and when they swell, inoculated with
bacteria which hydrolyze pectic substance of the cell walls and separate the fibres. These
separated fibres are used to make ropes and sacks.

Digestion

Some bacteria living in the gut of cattles, horses and other herbivores secrete cellulase, an
enzyme that helps in the digestion of the cellulose contents of plant cell walls. Cellulose in the
major source of energy for these animals.

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Vitamin synthesis

Escherichia coli living in human colon synthesize vitamin B and release it for human use.
Similarly, Clostridium butyclicum is used for commercial preparation of riboflavin, a vitamin B.

Waste disposal

Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria are used to decompose sewage wastes. They break down organic
matter to harmless, soluble sludge in settling tanks. The methane gas produced is used as energy
source. Similarly toxic chemicals synthesized by living organisms and those present in the
pesticides are disposed with the help of bacteria.

Pseudomonas putida has been created by using genetic engineering techniques and can break
down xylene and camphor.

Pest control

Bacteria can also be used in the place of pesticides in the biological pest control. This commonly
uses Bacillus thuringiensis (also called BT), a Gram-positive, soil dwelling bacterium. This
bacteria is used as a Lepidopteran-specific insecticide under trade names such as Dipel and
Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as Environmentally friendly,
with little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, and most other beneficial insects.

Harmful bacteria

Some bacteria are harmful and act either as disease-causing agents (pathogens) both in plants and
animals, or may play role in food spoilage.

Agents of disease.

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Organisms which cause disease are called pathogens. Some bacteria are pathogens Some bacteria
are pathogenic and cause diseases both in animals and plants. However, pathogenic bacteria
more commonly affect animals than plants.

Food spoilage

Saprotrophic bacteria attack and decompose organic matter. This characteristic has posed a
problem to mankind as food such as stored grains, meat, fish, vegetable and fruits are attacked by
saprotrophic bacteria and spoiled. Similarly milk and products are easily contaminated by
bacteria and spoiled.

Bacterial diseases in plants

Several plant diseases are induced by bacteria. They cause leaf spots, soft rots, wilts, vascular
diseases, overgrowths,scabs, cankers and bacterial galls. For example, Xanthomonas citri causes
citrus canker.

Diseases caused by bacteria in plants are all caused by 5 genera of bacteria namely

1. Pseudomonas
2. Xanthomonas
3. Coryneform
4. Erwinia
5. Agrobacter

All these genera of bacteria do not form spores. They are all gram negative with an exception of
Coryneforms which can be gram variable ie positive or negative

All bacteria that cause plant diseases are of bacilli type.

Pseudomonants: They are gram negative bacilli. Examples include, Psudomonas syringae that
causes die back of coffee

Pseudomonas savastamoi which affects the bean plant

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Pseudomonas solanasum which affects the solanaceae family

Xanthomonas campestris which affects cabbages. It forms a yellow V-shaped necrosis on the
leaves.

Xanthomonas axonopodis which causes disease in cotton

Coryneform bacteria which includes; Cravibacter michiganensis which causes disease in

tomatoes

Corynebacterium tritici which causes spike blight in wheat

Erwinia bacteria includes the following; Erwinia stewartia which causes soft rot in maize

Erwinia ananas which causes soft rot of pineapples.

Erwinia carotovora which causes soft rot in carrots

Agrobacteria includes; Agrobacterium tumefaciens which causes tumours on forest trees.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil bacterium that has the ability to infect plant cells and
transfer a defined sequence of their DNA to the plant cell by infection and a causative agent of
crown gall disease.

Mollicutes are bacteria only that they are small and do not have a cell wall. They include the
mycoplasmas and spiroplasmas. Mollicutes are also called phytoplasmas. They induce yellows
and witches brooms symptoms in plants, proliferation and reddening of the plant shoots.

Examples of bacterial diseases in plants include;

1. Bacterial blights of beans: There are three blights of bean caused by bacteria
a) Common blight- caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. Phaseoli
b) Halo blight- caused by Psudomonas syringae pv. Phaseolicola
c) Bacterial brown spot- caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. Syringae

All these diseases occur whereever beans are grown and cause similar symptoms.

These diseases affect the leaves, pods, stems and seeds in a similar way and are usually
impossible to distinguish from one another on the basis of symptoms.

The symptoms include:

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  Small water-soaked spots on the lower side of the leaves
 The spots enlarge, coalesce and form large areas that later become necrotic
 A narrow zone of blight yellow tissue turns brown and becomes rapidly necrotic
 Several small spots coalesce and produce large dead areas of various shapes
 Formation of water-soaked, sunken lesions that gradually enlarge longitudinally and turn
brown, often splitting at the surface and emitting a bacterial exudate. The diseased plant
often breaks at the lesions
 Water- soaked lesions develop on the pods, enlarge and turn reddish with age
 The seeds may rot or show various degrees of shrivelling and discoloration depending on
the timing and degree of infection

Control of the blight diseases

 Use of healthy seeds

 Sanitation practices aiming at reducing the inoculum in the field by removing and
burning infected plants
 Adjusting the fertilizing and watering so that plants are not extremely succulent during
the period of infection
 Practising crop rotation
 Use of chemicals eg foliar sprays and copper compounds

2. Bacterial wilt of tomato

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This disease is caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum. The bacterium is known to remain
present in the soil and persist for longer time in the soil. Infection usually occurs through wounds
during transplanting, weeding and nematode invasion.

Symptoms of the disease include:

 Wilting and stunting of plants with yellowing of foliage

 Collapsing of the entire plant
 Dropping off of lower leaves of infected plants before wilting
 Vascular system become brown in colour
 When cut across, lower stems exude bacterial ooze
 Sudden dropping of leaves without yellowing and rotting of the stem

Control measures

Crop rotation with cereal crops to check the incidences of the disease

Soil sterilization before planting

Soil fumigation

Use of healthy seedlings

3. Bacterial canker of tomato: This disease is caused by Cravibacter michiganensis. The

pathogen is known to perpetuate on the seed, in diseased plant debris and on weed hosts such
as Solanum nigrum. Wilting and canker formation usually develop following systemic

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 infection that result from seed borne inoculums or from the pathogen being introduced
directly into the vascular system through wounds.
The symptoms of the disease include:
 Wilting of leaflets
 Appearance of white streaks on the stem near the base that may break open
forming the cankers
 The streaks later turn grey brown
 Water- soaked spots on green fruits surrounded by white haloes
 Development of cankers on stems, petioles and midribs during the later stages of
disease development
 The cankers consist of brownish streaks that split open to reveal necrotic tissue in
the pith and cortex

Control measures

 Crop rotation for four years

 Field sanitation
 Soil sterilization
 Use of extracted seeds through fermentation of seed and bulb at room temperature for 72
hours

4. Citrus canker disease:

This disease is caused by a bacterium known as Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri

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The disease affects all the aerial parts including leaves, twigs, thorns, brances, petioles and fruits. It
affects all kinds of citrus.
Symptoms include:
 Small, slightly raised, round, light green spots with yellowish haloes on leaves, twigs and fruits
 The spots turn grey-white in color and rupture exhibiting corky brown sunken centers
 Affected leaves fall prematurely
 Appearance of small, round water-soaked transluscent, and yellowish spots on leaves
 The lesions enlarge and become raised with yellow brown coloration and form a patch.
Control measures
 Prunning of the affected twigs
 Spraying of 1% Boardeaux mixture
 Use of canker resistant varieties

5. Wild fire of tobacco:

The disease is caused by Psudomonas syringae pv. Tobaci which is also known to infect soyabean and
lima beans in the field.
Symptoms

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  Characteristic round, yellowish, green and water soaked spots that develop on the leaves of young
plants during high humidity
 Wet rots at the margins and tips of young plants in seed beds
 The round yellow spots turn to brown and are surrounded by whitish yellow halos
 Spots do not occur on flowers, seed capsules, petioles and stems
 The appearance of spots give the plants a scotched appearance
Control
 Use of resistant varieties
 Practice crop rotation
 Use of healthy seeds that have been treated with a suitable bactericide such as streptomycin.

6.Red stripe and top rot of sugarcane

This disease is caused by Acidovorax avenae sub sp. The bacterium is known to persist in soil and older
diseased and wilted leaves.
Symptoms
 Characteristic, small, linear and water soaked areas that develop on the leaf blades and sheath.
 These areas soon elongate and coalesce into irregular narrow yellowish or brownish stripe
 The spikes become blighted later
 Bud infection is observed with sunken internodes
 Internal tissues of such internodes show similar color and large cavities as rotting progresses.

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  Terminal buds die and stalks are decomposed producing foul smell.
Control
 Roguing out diseased stools from the field
 Growing of resistant varieties

6. Bacterial stalk rot of maize

This disease is caused by Erwinia corotovora sp zeae sabet
Symptoms
 Symptoms at the lower nodes that remain confined at one or two internodes only
 Infected tissues become soft and at the beginning and later turn to dry mass of shredded
fibres. At this stage, the infected plant topples down
 In severe attacks, light to dark brown rotting may spread rapidly throughout the leaf sheath
causing wilting
 The stalk and ears may also be badly affected that usually emit offensive odor

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Control
 Roguing and destruction of all diseased plants
 Spraying of the mixture solution containing agrimycin

7. Tundu or yellow ear rot blight of wheat

This disease is caused by Corynebacterium tritici bacteria and Anguina tritici nematode.
Symptoms
 The disease appear at the time of maturity of the infected plants
 The leaves of infected plant become wrinkled, curled or twisted when they emerge from the
whorl
 Emerging ear heads are usually accompanied by the exudation of bright yellow sticky ooze
covering the entire ear.
 The bacteria ooze binds the glumes, stem and leaf sheath causing stunting and distortion of leaves
Control
 Treatment of seeds with 20% salt solution

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