Level 2 Foundations of Physics 2B – Condensed Matter Physics

Summary of Course
 Bullet points describe key learning outcomes for each lecture
Text summarises key points in each lecture with key equations.

Lecture 1 Review of Condensed Matter state

 Basic thermal and mechanical properties of crystals

Phase diagrams, mass and size of atoms, equipartition theorem, heat capacity of solids (Dulong and Petit
Law), bulk modulus, Young’s modulus, review of periodic table.

Lecture 2 Crystal structures

 Crystals are highly periodic systems described by one of 14 Bravais lattices in 3D
 Miller indices describe families of parallel planes of atoms with perpendicular spacing dhkl

Crystals are periodic arrays of atoms for filling space. Symmetry operations: translations, rotations and
reflections. Bravais lattices: in 3D there are 14 Bravais lattices made up of the 7 basic crystal systems. The 7
basic crystal systems are defined by the length of each of the three axes (a, b, c) and the angles between
the axes (α, β, γ). Each crystal system has four possible variants: primitive (or simple), interstitial (or body
centred), face centred and base centred. Of the 28 possible combinations there are only 14 unique Bravais
'
lattices. The primitive lattice is defined by r =r + n1 a1+ n2 a2 +n3 a3 for all possible values of – i.e.
the most basic system for generating a lattice. The primitive lattice vectors a 1 , a2 , a3 then define the crystal
axes. The crystal is composed of a basis at each lattice point. The unit cell is called the Wigner Seitz cell.
Miller indices describe a crystallographic plane or orthogonal direction in a crystal. The distance between
1
d hkl =

√( )
2 2 2
planes is given by h k l . Miller indices are found be taking the reciprocal of the intercepts
2
+ 2
+ 2
a1 a2 a3
for the three axes a 1 , a2 , a3 and reducing to the smallest ratio.

Lecture 3 Diffraction of waves by crystals

 Bragg’s law describes diffraction of waves from crystals
 Periodic crystal structures are described by a sum of periodic functions (Fourier series)
 Each family of planes described by a point in reciprocal space with equivalent reciprocal lattice
vectors

Crystals behave as a system of parallel planes. Crystals diffract x-rays where the wavelength is comparable
to the lattice spacing. Bragg’s law is described by 2 d sinθ=nλ . As periodic structures, crystals can be
described as a linear combination of sin and cos functions. The electron density in 1-dimension can be

written as n ( x )=n 0+ ∑
ρ>0
[ C ρ cos ( 2 πρx
a ) + S sin (
ρ
a )]
2 πρx
. The factor 2 π /ais essential and ensures that

the sin and cos functions have the correct periodicity (of the crystal). In 3-dimensions we have
n ( r ) =∑ nG exp ( iG ⋅r )where G is the set of reciprocal lattice vectors (having units of inverse length). The
G
a2 ×a 3 a3 × a1 a1 × a2
vectors of the reciprocal lattice are b 1=2 π b 2=2 π b 3=2 π with
a1 ⋅ ( a2 ×a 3 ) a1 ⋅ ( a2 ×a 3 ) a1 ⋅ ( a2 ×a 3 )
the vectors defining the reciprocal lattice and
G=h b1 +k b2 +l b3.

Lecture 4 Reciprocal Lattice and Structure Factor

 X-ray diffraction peaks are equivalent to reciprocal lattice points
 The first Brillouin Zone is equivalent to the unit cell in reciprocal space

Foundations of Physics 2B Condensed Matter Physics Revision Lecture summary 2023 Page 1 of 5
  The Structure Factor describes the intensity of diffracted waves using Structure Factor rules

Every crystal has a lattice and a reciprocal lattice as defined above. For all lattice and reciprocal lattice
vectors exp ( iG ⋅ R )=1. X-ray scattering is described by ∆ k=G where Δk is the change in x-ray
wavevector after scattering. This is commonly written as 2 k ⋅G=G 2 . It is shown that the reciprocal lattice of
a fcc structure is bcc and vice-versa. The Structure Factor describes the intensity of a diffracted wave. This is
equivalent to the Fourier analysis of the unique atoms in the lattice unit cell and is due to interference within
a unit cell (not described by Bragg’s Law). The Structure Factor is the scattering amplitude for a crystal of N
❑
cells. N S G=N ∫ dV n ( r ) exp (−iG ⋅r ). Using the coordinates of the unique lattice sites in the unit cell
cell

gives SG ( hkl ) =∑ f j exp [−i2 π ( h x j+ k y j +l z j ) ] The atomic form factor ( f ) depends on the atoms and is
j
linked to the atomic number of the atom. Evaluating for the bcc lattice gives S = 0 when h+k+l = odd integer
and 2f when h+k+l = even integer. For fcc rules are S = 0 when h k l mixed and S = 4f when h k l all odd or
all even. These are commonly known as the Structure Factor Rules.

Lecture 5 Bonding CANCELLED DUE TO STRIKE ACTION

Lecture 6 Vibrating atoms in a lattice – phonons

 Crystals are composed of vibrating atoms, energy of vibration is quantised into phonons
 Phonon dispersion relation describes propagation of phonons in lattice, derived from plane of atoms

Evidence for the failure of the static lattice model: sound waves, heat capacity of solids, superconductivity,
thermal expansion and melting. The static lattice model is not sufficient to describe the properties of crystals.
We develop a new model describing crystals as parallel planes of vibrating atoms (a one-dimensional
problem). By considering nearest neighbour interactions mediated by springs with a spring constant C we

( ) |sin 12 Ka|
1
4C
develop a dispersion relation ω ( K )= 2
. This describes the frequency dependence of the
M
propagation of waves. The first Brillouin zone extends from –π/a to π/a. Any wavevector value can be
reduced to fit inside the first Brillouin zone. At the boundary of the first Brillouin zone the phonon velocity is
∂ω
zero – this is analogous to Bragg scattering. Using the expression for group velocity v g= we obtain
∂K

( ) cos Ka2
2 1
Ca
which is zero at K=π /a. In the long wavelength limit,
2
v g= , the wavelength of the
M

( ) Ka
1
C 2
excitation is much larger than the lattice constant. In this case ω= and the group velocity is
M
therefore a constant, this is the velocity of sound waves.

Lecture 7 The Dispersion Relation with a two atom basis

 Many crystals have a two-atom basis. This results in two branches in the phonon dispersion curve
 Two approximations: Debye treats acoustic modes using constant velocity, Einstein treats optic
modes as having constant energy
 Using one or both of Debye or Einstein approximations produces curves which fit heat capacity data

With two atoms in the crystal basis (a common situation for many crystals) the phonon dispersion relation is
more complex having two branches. The acoustic branch describes the situation when the two atoms in the
basis move in phase and the optical branch describes the situation where the two atoms in the basis move
out of phase. The dispersion relation is obtained by considering two atoms of mass M1 and M2 with a spring
constant C. The solution is obtained from the determinant of a matrix for two homogeneous linear equations

giving ω
2
≅2C ( 1
+
1
M1 M 2 ) 2
for the optical branch (with ω independent of K) and ω ≅
C /2
M 1+ M 2
2 2
K a (with ω

a linear function of K) for the acoustic branch. The Dulong and Petit law gives the specific heat capacity at
constant volume as 3R per mole as a consequence of the classical equipartition theorem. With phonons the

Foundations of Physics 2B Condensed Matter Physics Revision Lecture summary 2023 Page 2 of 5
number of vibrational modes is described by the Density of States function: the number of modes in a given

( () dK
dω )
2
dN V K
energy range ω is given by D ( ω )= = 2 . The Debye model for the phonon density of states
dω 2π
treats the acoustic phonon branch as a line with constant velocity (slope) written as ω=vK where ν is the
velocity of sound. The Einstein model for the phonon Density of States treats all phonons as quantised
oscillators all having the same energy k B θE. The Density of States is then given by D ( ω )=Nδ ( ω−ω0 ) .

Lecture 8 Classical Drude Model of Electrons in Solids

 Drude Model treats electrons in metals as classical particles
 Drude Model can explain the Wiedemann-Franz Law

The Drude Model treats electrons in metals as classical particles. Equipartition theorem for classical
1 3 3
me ⟨ v ⟩ = k B T . The heat capacity from the Drude model C V = k B per electron. The
2
electrons
2 2 2
2
ne τ
electrical conductivity is σ = where n is the electron density per unit volume and  is the relaxation
me

()
2
κ 3 k
time. The Wiedemann-Franz ratio is = T . Fortuitously agreeing with experiments to within a factor
σ 2 e
of 2.

Lecture 9 Quantum Free Electron (Sommerfeld) Model

 Free electron Sommerfeld Model treats electrons as quantum particles
 Free electron model confines electrons in region of zero potential of same dimensions as metal
 Quantum confinement results in allowed values of wavevector being quantised
 In free electron model periodic boundary conditions are used
 Density of states function describes the number of available electron energy states per unit energy
range

2 2
ℏ k
Quantum energy states are described by E= where the allowed wavevector values are k. Periodic
2 me
boundary conditions define the allowed values of wavevector. The Fermi wavevector is the largest possible
wavevector state (when the system is in the ground state) and gives a corresponding Fermi energy.

Periodic boundary conditions in 3D give the allowed values of wavevector which are valid solutions of the
3
L
Schrodinger equation. There are 3
electron states per unit volume of k-space. The Fermi surface
4π
2 2 2
ℏ k F ℏ2
(constant energy) is a sphere in k-space. The Fermi energy is then E F= = ( 3 π n ) 3 . The density
2
2 me 2 me
of states function in 3D gives the number of available energy states per unit energy range
3
21
L m 2 . This is obtained from considering the volume occupied in k-space by a single electron
3
n ( E ) =√ 2 2
e
E3
π ℏ
energy state. The density of states is different for 1D, 2D and 3D systems.

Lecture 10 The Fermi - Dirac Distribution Function

 The Fermi - Dirac function describes the probability of an available energy state being occupied at
finite temperatures
 Heat capacity of electrons in metals is described well by free electron model.

The Fermi - Dirac distribution function gives the probability of an available energy state (described by the
energy density of states function) being occupied by an electron. The function is

Foundations of Physics 2B Condensed Matter Physics Revision Lecture summary 2023 Page 3 of 5
 1
f ( E )= with the number of electrons being given by
exp [ ( E−EF ) /k B T ] +1
EF ∞
N=∫ n ( E ) dE=∫ n ( E ) f ( E ) dE (note change of limits). The electronic heat capacity determined from the
0 0

quantum model is C V ≈
3
2
kB
(
2kBT
EF )
. This is much smaller than the incorrect value predicted by the

classical model.

Lecture 11 Magnetic Properties of free electron model

 Free electron model can describe observed Pauli paramagnetism
 Free electron model can describe some observed Hall effect data
 Free electron model does not describe observed positive Hall coefficient in some metals

Pauli paramagnetism occurs in a magnetic field when a proportion of electrons change their spins to lower
∂M 2
n ( E F)
the total energy of the free electron system. The magnetic susceptibility is χ B=μ0 =μ0 μB . The
∂B V
Hall effect produces an electric field perpendicular to the direction of current flow and the magnetic field.
−1 −1
E= j × B≡ RH j × B with the Hall coefficient given by RH = where n is the free electron density.
ne ne

Lecture 12 The Nearly - free electron model – Bloch’s Theorem

 Nearly-free electron model includes interaction of electrons with periodic potential of crystal
representing the atoms
 Bloch’s theorem describes nearly free electron wavefunction as the product of Bloch function
(having periodicity of crystal lattice) and free electron wavefunctions

We consider the interaction between electrons and a periodic potential (which is a consequence of the atoms
in a crystal structure). Bloch’s Theorem applies to electron energy states in a periodic potential. We show
that in 1D Bloch’s theorem is expressed as ψ ( x+ R )=uk ( r ) ψ ( x ) . This shows that the solution of the
Schrodinger equation for electrons in a periodic potential consists of plane wave solutions from free electrons
modulated in intensity by the Bloch function uk ( r ) having the periodicity of the lattice. Energy bands can be
represented in extended or reduced zone schemes. In the reduced zone scheme all the energy wavevector
−π π
curves (energy bands) are confined within the first Brillouin zone < k < (in cubic crystals).
a a

Lecture 13 Nearly - free electron energy bands

 The E-k relationship for the nearly-free electron model describes a range of properties of electrons in
Bloch states (electrons in a periodic potential)
 Electrons in Bloch states behave as though they are electrons but with a variable effective mass, a
negative effective mass describes holes
 The electron group velocity and effective mass are determined from the E-k diagram

The E(k) relation for electrons in energy bands in a periodic potential (described as Bloch states) is used to
1 dE
determine their properties in the energy band. The electron velocity is v= . We show that completely
ℏ dk
filled energy bands have zero net velocity and therefore do not contribute to current flow. The force on an
d
electron is the rate of change of the crystal momentum F= ( ℏk ) . Electrons in nearly-free electron
dt
energy bands (Bloch states) behave in a similar manner to free electrons except that they have an effective

Foundations of Physics 2B Condensed Matter Physics Revision Lecture summary 2023 Page 4 of 5
 ( )
2 −1
2 d E
mass rather than the electron mass. The effective mass is given by m eff =ℏ 2 . The effective mass
dk
is proportional to the inverse curvature of the E(k) relation. Empty energy states near the top of a band can
be considered as hole states with a positive charge. Holes have charge +e, a wavevector kh = -ke , an
energy of Eh(kh) = -E(ke) , a velocity of vh = ve and an effective mass of meff(h) = -meff(e). The size of the
energy gap is related to the material being a semiconductor or insulator.

Lecture 14 Review of Course CANCELLED DUE TO STRIKE ACTION

Foundations of Physics 2B Condensed Matter Physics Revision Lecture summary 2023 Page 5 of 5