and delete the corresponding a from the stack. The transitions defined for this can be of the form [email protected],a) = (q,8) Step 4: In state qu, if the next input symbol to be scanned is € and if the top of the stack is Zo, (it means that for each b in the input there exists corresponding a on the stack) change the state to q2 which is an accepting state. The transition defined for this can be of the form 5G, €, Zo) = (2 Z) f So, the PDA to accept the language L= {a"b"In2 1} along with transition diagram is given by a, ZolaZo M=(Q £, 1, qo Zo F) aa/aa where Q= {dod 42} bale bale E = (a,b) T= {a, Zo} 8: is shown below. 8(qo, a, Zo) = (Qo AZo) 3(qo, aa) =o, 2a) S(qo,b,a) = Que) 8(q.b,a) = (ue) 3(qu,€,Z0) = (422) o€ Q is the start state of machine. Ze T is the initial symbol on the stack, F= (qp) is the final state. To accept the string: The sequence of moves made by the PDA for the string azabbb 'Sshown below,Initial 1D en (qo. aaabbb, Zo) (qo, aabbb, aZp) (qo, abbb, aaZp) (qo, bbb, aaaZo) (qi, bb, aaZp) (qi, b, aZp) (qu, &, Zp) (Ga, & Zo) (Final Configuration) Serr Since q2 is the final state and input string is € in the final Configuration, the String aaabbb is accepted by the PDA. To reject the string: The sequence of moves made by the PDA for the String aabbb is shown below. Initial ID (Go, aabbb, Zs) + (qo, abbb, aZ,) + Go, bbb, aaZ) b @, bb, 22) @ub, 2) Final Configuration) Since the transition (qi, b, Zo) is not defined, the string aabbb is rejected by the PDA, Note: By changing the final transition from 541, £2.) = (q,,2,) to 8(q1, €,Z) = (qa, €) the PDA accepted by an empty stack is obta; empty ined. Note that qz is not the final state. The corresponding transition diagram accep ting by an empty stack is shown below:8.3 Undecidable problems that are RE * Definition: [The problems that run forever on a Turing machine are not solvable. In other words, there are some problem input instances for which Turing machines will not halt on inputs that.they-do-not-accept. Those problems are called unsolvable or undec Pproblems}In general, if there is no general algorithm capable of solving every instance of the problem, then the decision problem is unsolvable. More precisely, if there is no Turing machine recognizing the language of all strings for various instances of the problems input for which the answer is yes or no, then the decision problem is unsolvable. Let us assume M is a Turing machine with input alphabets {0, 1}, w is a string of 0's and 1’s and M accepts w. If this problem with inputs restricted to binary alphabets {0, 1} is undecidable, then the general problem is undecidable and can not be solved with a Turing machine with any alphabet. Note: The term unsolvable and undecidable are used interchangeably. Note: Even though we are able to answer the question in many specific instances, 2 problem may be undecidable. It means that there is no single algorithm guaranteed to provide an answer for every case. Note: If a language L is not accepted by a Turing machine, then the language is not recursively enumerable. One important problem which is not recursively enumerable that is unsolvable/undecidable decision problem is ‘Halting problem”.8.4 Halting Problem } 4 . The “Halting Problem” can informally be stated as “Given a Turing machine M and an input string w with the initial configuration qo, after some (or all) computations do the machine M halts?” In other words we have to identify whether (M, w) where M is the Turing machine, halts or does not halt when w is applied as the input. The domain of this problem is to be taken as the set of all Turing machines and all w i.c., Given the description of an arbitrary Turing machine M and the input string , we are looking for a single Turing machine that will predict whether or not the computation of M applied to w will halt. ‘When we state decidability or undecidability results, we must always know what the domain is, because this may affect the conclusion. The problems may be decidable on some domain but not on another. It is not possible to find the answer for Halting problem by simulating the action of M on w by a universal Turing machine, because there is no limit on the length of the computation. If M enters into an infinite loop, then no matter how long we wait, we can never be sure that M is in fact in a loop. The machine may be in a loop because of a very long computation. What is required is an algorithm that can determine the correct answer for any M and w by performing some analysis on the machine’s description and the input. (Formally, the Halting Problem is stated as “Given an arbitrary Turing machine M=(Q, 5, F, 8, qp,B, A) and the input w € 2°, does M halt on input w2" 8.5 Post’s Correspondence Problem xk Fa The Post correspondence problem can be stated as follows. Given two sequences of n strings on some alphabet = say A=WhWay-eoWa and BH=ViVaeeeVn : , , ; we say that there exists a Post correspondence solution for pair (A,B) if there is a nonempty sequence of integers ij,.--Ks such that WiWy,, Me VV preVk Zo ; : ‘The Post correspondence problem is to devise an algorithm that will tell us, for any (A,B) whether or not there exists PC-solution. For example, Let £=(0-1}. Let ‘Ais wl, w2, w3 as shown below: wy; = 11, w2 = 100, w= 111Let B is v1, shown below: v1 001v3 =H For this case, there exists a PC-solution as shown below: wl w2 w3 0 1f1{t] v2 v3 li we take Wi = 00, w; = 001, ws = 1000 v1=0,¥2= 11, v3= 011 there cannot be any PC-solution simply because any string composed of elements of A will be longer than the corresponding string from B. 8.6 Church Turing Hypothesis (Church’s/Church-Turing thesis) Church’s thesis: Various formal models of computations such as Recursive functions and Post systems were established by three prominent persons A.Church, $.C.Kleene and E.Post. A function is called primitive recursive if and only if it can be constructed from the basic functions by successive composition and primitive recursion. A Post system is similar to unrestricted grammar consisting of an alphabet and some production rules by which successive strings can be derived. In addition to recursive functions and Post systems, many other formal computations models have been proposed. On examination it was found that though the computational models looked quite different, they expressed the same thing. This observation was formalized in Church’s thesis which is stated as follows: ny “effective computation” or “any algorithmic” procedure that can be carried out by a human being or a team of human beings or a computer, can be carried out by some Turing machine} In other words, there is an effective procedure to solve a decision problem P if and only if there is a Turing machine that answers yes on inputs W € P and no for w ¢ P. . ‘This theory maintains that all the models of computations those are proposed and yet to be proposed, are equivalent in their. power to recognize languages of compute functions. This thesis predicts that it is unable to construct models of computation more powerful than the existing ones.ro pita er is known as “Church’s thesis” named after the logician .Churcl e ince the Church 's thesis is closely related to Turing’s thesis which states that we can not go beyond Turing machines or their equivalent, it is also called Church-Turing thesis. Since there is no precise definition for “effective computation” or there is no precise definition for “algorithmic procedure”, Church's thesis is not a mathematically precise statement. So, this statement is not proved at the same time it has been not been disproved. Even though it is simply stated and not proved, now majority of scientists have accumulated enough evidence over the years that has caused Church’s thesis to be generally accepted.