Computer networks

Unit -2
8-marks
1.Types of address in IP V4 and NAT ?
IPv4 Address Types:
Public Address:
Assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to individual networks or devices.
Globally unique and directly accessible from the internet. Used for communication between
devices on different networks.
Private Address:
Used within private networks (e.g., home, office, corporate) to isolate devices from
the public internet. Not directly accessible from the internet.
Assigned from a reserved range of addresses:
10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Class A:
IP addresses in this class range from 0–127. A class A network can support 127
networks, and each network can support 16 million hosts.
Class B:
IP addresses in this class range from 128–191. The first two bits of the IP address are
set to 10, and the first two octets represent the network part. The remaining two octets
represent the host part. Class B addresses are designed for medium-sized networks.
Class C:
IP addresses in this class range from 192–223. The first three octets designate the
network portion, and the last octet designates the host portion. Class C addresses are suited
for small network.
Class D:
IP addresses in this class range from 224–239. Class D is reserved for multicasting.
Class E:
IP addresses in this class range from 240–255.
NAT (Network Address Translation):
A technique used to translate private addresses into public addresses. Allows multiple
devices on a private network to share a single public IP address. Enables communication
between devices on a private network and the internet. Hides the private network from the
public internet, improving security.

NAT Types:
There are 3 types of NAT is there they are static ,dynamic and Port Address Translation.

Static NAT:
In static NAT, every internal IP address is mapped to a unique external IP address.
This is one-to-one mapping. When outgoing traffic arrives at the router, the router replaces
the destination IP address with the mapped global IP. When the return traffic comes back to
the router, the router replaces the mapped global IP address with the source IP address.
Static NAT is mostly used in servers that need to be accessible from the internet, such as
web servers and email servers.

Dynamic NAT:
In dynamic network address translation, internal IP addresses are mapped to a pool
of external IP addresses. This is one-to-many mapping. When the outgoing traffic arrives at
the router, the router replaces the destination IP address with a free global IP address from
the pool. When the return traffic comes back to the router, the router replaces the mapped
global IP address with the source IP address.
Dynamic NAT is mostly used in networks that need outbound internet connectivity.
Port address translation(PAT):
PAT is a type of dynamic NAT that maps multiple internal IP addresses to a single
external IP address via port numbers. This is many-to-one mapping. When a computer
connects to the internet, the router assigns it a port number that it then appends to the
computer's internal IP address, in turn giving the computer a unique IP address. When a
second computer connects to the internet, it gets the same external IP address but a
different port number.

2. Overview of IP V6 ?
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the successor to IPv4, the current internet addressing
system. It was designed to address the growing demand for IP addresses and to provide a
more efficient and scalable addressing scheme.
Key Features of IPv6:

Larger Address Space:

IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, offering a vast address space that can accommodate the
growing number of connected devices. This eliminates the need for NAT (Network Address
Translation), which can complicate network management and security.

Simplified Header:The IPv6 header is simpler and more flexible than the IPv4 header,
improving routing efficiency and reducing processing overhead.

Header Extension Fields:IPv6 supports optional header extension fields that can be
used for various purposes, such as quality of service (QoS), security, and mobility.

Autoconfiguration:IPv6 includes mechanisms for automatic configuration of network

interfaces, simplifying network setup and management.

Multicast Support:IPv6 provides enhanced multicast support, allowing efficient

delivery of data to multiple recipients.
There are several types of IPv6 addresses

Unicast
The most common type of IPv6 address, unicast addresses identify a single interface in a
network. When a packet is sent to a unicast address, it is delivered to the interface identified
by that address.

Anycast
An IPv6 address assigned to a set of interfaces that typically belong to different nodes. When
a packet is sent to an Anycast address, it is delivered to the closest interface. This allows for
increased efficiency and redundancy.

Multicast
Used for one-to-many communication, a multicast address is allocated to a collection of
interfaces belonging to several nodes. Multicast addresses allow you to send data packets
from multiple sources simultaneously to various other receivers.

Global unicast
Similar to the IPv4 public address, a global unicast IPv6 address is routed on the Internet.
Internet authorities allocate these addresses to ISPs or LIRs, which assign them through
leases or sales.

Link-local
A type of IPv6 unicast address that is only used for communication between nodes on the
same local link.

Unique local
A globally unique IPv6 unicast address that is intended for local communications. It is not
expected to be routable on the global Internet. Mobility Support:IPv6 includes features that
support mobile devices and allow them to maintain their IP addresses while moving
between different networks.

Benefits of IPv6:
Scalability:IPv6's vast address space can accommodate the growing number of
connected devices.

Efficiency: The simplified header and header extension fields improve routing efficiency
and reduce processing overhead.

Security: IPv6 includes features that can enhance security, such as IPsec.
Mobility: IPv6 supports mobile devices and allows them to maintain their IP addresses
while moving between different networks.
Simplicity: IPv6's automatic configuration and simplified header make network
management easier.

Deployment of IPv6:
Dual Stack: Many networks are transitioning to IPv6 using a dual-stack approach, which
involves running both IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously.

IPv6-Only: Some networks, particularly new networks, are being deployed with IPv6
only.As more devices and networks adopt IPv6, it is expected to become the dominant
internet addressing system.

5-Marks
1.Different between subnetting and supernetting ?
A smaller network, often called a subnet or subnetwork, is produced by segmenting a larger
network into smaller, easier-to-manage networks. Subnetting divides a network into smaller,
independent portions, improving structure and security. Each subnet can be established and
managed independently, and it can have its own set of network addresses. In large
networks, such as those used by businesses or organizations, subnetting is a typical practice
On the other hand, multiple networks are linked together to form a supernet , which
enables them to interact and communicate with one another to form a single ecosystem.
Subnetting
Advantages of subnetting
Subnetting enables the division of a large network into smaller subnets, which aids
in the efficient use of IP address allocation. It lessens IP address wastage and enables
organizations to allocate IP addresses in accordance with their unique requirements.
Subnetting can help reduce network congestion and enhance overall network performance
by breaking up a large network into smaller subnets. Smaller subnets improve the efficiency
of routing and switching operations and allow for better network traffic control.
Increased network security: Subnetting makes it possible to implement security measures
more precisely. Organizations can improve security by controlling access between subnets
and implementing firewall rules by isolating various subnets from one another.
Disadvantages of subnetting
 Subnetting can make network configuration and design more complicated. It can be
difficult, especially for large networks, to choose the right subnet sizes, plan IP address
ranges, and manage routing between subnets.
Subnetting requires more administrative work, especially when adding new subnets or
changing the configuration of existing ones. In addition to maintaining routing tables and
ensuring proper connectivity between subnets, it entails managing IP address ranges.

Supernetting
Advantages of supernetting
Supernetting enables the consolidation of several smaller networks into a
single, larger network block, which reduces the size of the routing table and
maximizes the use of IP address space.
Routing can be made easier by combining several smaller networks into a
supernet because fewer routing updates and table entries are required. This
may result in increased routing effectiveness and decreased router overhead.
A reduced number of routing lookups needed for packet forwarding thanks to
supernetting can help improve network performance. As a result, packet
processing may be accelerated and latency may be decreased.

Disadvantages of supernetting
Supernetting involves aggregating multiple networks into larger network blocks.
This can result in a loss of granularity, making it more challenging to implement fine-grained
network management, security policies, and traffic control.
Increased risk of network failures: If a single supernet experiences a network
failure, it can affect multiple smaller networks within that supernet . This makes
troubleshooting and isolating network issues more complex.
Supernetting requires careful planning and coordination to ensure that the
aggregated networks have compatible address ranges. It may limit the ability to make
independent changes to individual subnets within a supernet without affecting the entire
supernet.

2.Explain in detail about public and private address ?

Private Networks and Public Networks are two fundamental types of computer networks,
each serving distinct purposes and operating under different security protocols.

Private Networks Scope: These networks are confined to a specific organization or

entity, such as a company, school, or home.
Access: Access is restricted to authorized individuals within the organization.
Security: High security measures are implemented to protect sensitive data and prevent
unauthorized access.

Examples: Local Area Networks (LANs), Wide Area Networks (WANs), and Virtual Private
Networks (VPNs).

Public NetworksScope: These networks are accessible to the general public.

Access: Anyone with internet connectivity can access a public network.
Security: Lower security measures are in place due to their open nature, making them
more vulnerable to attacks.

Examples: The internet, Wi-Fi hotspots in public places, and cellular networks.