Chapter One

Propositional Logic and Set Theory

1.1. Propositional Logic
Mathematical or symbolic logic is an analytical theory of the art of reasoning whose goal is to systematize and
codify principles of valid reasoning. It has emerged from a study of the use of language in argument and persuasion
and is based on the identification and examination of those parts of language which are essential for these purposes.
It is formal in the sense that it lacks reference to meaning. Thereby it achieves versatility: it may be used to judge the
correctness of a chain of reasoning (in particular, a "mathematical proof") solely on the basis of the form (and not
the content) of the sequence of statements which make up the chain. There is a variety of symbolic logics. We shall
be concerned only with that one which encompasses most of the deductions of the sort encountered in mathematics.
Within the context of logic itself, this is "classical" symbolic logic.
1.1.1. Definition and examples of propositions

Definition 1.1: A proposition (or statement) is a sentence which has a truth value (either True or False but not both).
Consider the following sentences.
a. 2 is an even number. ,b. A triangle has four sides. C. May God bless you! d. Give me that book. e .What is
your name?.
The first two sentences are declarative sentences. The next three sentence are not proposition.
Remark: Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted by T ) or false (denoted by F ).
Note: Letters such as p , q , r , s etc. are usually used to denote actual propositions.
1.1.2. Logical connectives

Conjunction
When two propositions are joined with the connective “and,” the proposition formed is a logical conjunction. “and”
is denoted by “ ”. So, the logical conjunction of two propositions, p and q , is written:
p ∧q , read as “ pand q ,” or “ p conjunction q ”.
p and q are called the components of the conjunction. p ∧q is true if and only if p is true and q is true.

The truth table for conjunction is given as follows:

p q p ∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Example 1.1: Consider the following propositions:

p: 3 is an odd number. (True) ,q : 27 is a prime number. (False),r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Oromia. (True)
a. p ∧q : 3 is an odd number and 27 is a prime number. (False)
b. p ∧r : 3 is an odd number and Addis Ababa is the capital city of Oromia. (True)

Disjunction
When two propositions are joined with the connective “or,” the proposition formed is called a logical disjunction.
“or” is denoted by “ ”. So, the logical disjunction of two propositions, p and q , is written:
p ∨q read as “ p or q ” or “ p disjunction q .”
p ∨q isfalse if and only if both p and q are false.

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The truth table for disjunction is given as follows:

p q p ∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example 1.2: Consider the following propositions:

p: 3 is an odd number. (True), q : 27 is a prime number. (False) , s: Nairobi is the capital city of Oromia. (False)
a. p ∨q : 3 is an odd number or 27 is a prime number. (True)
b. p ∨ s: 27 is a prime number or Nairobi is the capital city of Oromia. (False)

Implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective “implies,” the proposition formed is called a logical
implication. “implies” is denoted by “ .” So, the logical implication of two propositions, p and q , is written:
p ⟹ qread as “ p implies q .”
The function of the connective “implies” between two propositions is the same as the use of “If … then …” Thus
p ⟹ q can be read as “if p, then q .”
p ⟹ qis false if and only if p is true and q is false.

This form of a proposition is common in mathematics. The proposition p is called the hypothesis or the antecedent
of the conditional proposition p ⟹ q while q is called its conclusion or the consequent.
The following is the truth table for implication.

p q p⟹q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Examples 1.3: Consider the following propositions:

p: 3 is an odd number. (True) ,q : 27 is a prime number. (False); r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Oromia.
(True)
p ⟹ q: If 3 is an odd number, then 27 is prime. (False), p ⟹ r : If 3 is an odd number, then Addis Ababa is the
capital city of oromia. (True).We have already mentioned that the implication p ⟹ q can be expressed as both “If
p, then q ” and “ p implies q .” There are various ways of expressing the proposition p ⟹ q, namely:
If p, then q , q if p., pimplies q .; p only if q . p is sufficient for q . q is necessary for p

Bi-implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective “bi-implication,” the proposition formed is called a
logicalbi-implication or a logical equivalence. A bi-implication is denoted by “ ”. So the logical bi-implication
of two propositions, p and q , is written:
p ⟺ q.
p ⟺ qis false if and only if p and q have different truth values.

The truth table for bi-implication is given by:

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 p q p⟺q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Examples 1.4:
a. Let p: 2 is greater than 3. (False), q : 5 is greater than 4. (True) Then
p ⟺ q: 2 is greater than 3 if and only if 5 is greater than 4. (False)
b. p: 3 is an odd number. (True), q : 2 is a prime number. (True)
p ⟺ q: 3 is an odd number if and only if 2 is a prime number. (True)
There are various ways of stating the proposition p ⟺ q .
pif and only if q (also written as p iff q ), pimpliesq and q implies p, pis necessary and sufficient for q
q is necessary and sufficient for p , pis equivalent to q .

Negation
Given any proposition p, we can form the proposition p called the negation of p. The truth value of p is F if p is
T and T if pis F .

We can describe the relation between p and p as follows.

p p
T F
F T

Example 1.5:Let p: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Oromia. (True)

p: Addis Ababa is not the capital city of Oromia. (False)
1.1.3. Compound (or complex) propositions

Definition 1.2: The proposition formed by joining two or more proposition by connective(s) is called a compound
statement.

The possible truth values of a proposition are often listed in a table, called a truth table. If p and q are
propositions, then there are four possible combinations of truth values for pand q . That is,TT , TF , FT and FF . If
a third proposition r is involved, then there are eight possible combinations of truth values for p,q and r . In
general, a truth table involving “n ” propositions p1, p2,…, pn contains 2n possible combinations of truth values for
these propositions and a truth table showing these combinations would have n columns and 2n rows. So, we use
truth tables to determine the truth value of a compound proposition based on the truth value of its constituent
component propositions.

Examples1.6:
a. Suppose p and r are true and q and s are false.
What is the truth value of( p ∧q ) ⟹ (r ∨ s )?
i. Since p is true and q is false, p ∧q is false. And Since r is true and s is false, r ∨ s is true.
ii. Thus by applying the rule of implication, we get that ( p ∧q ) ⟹ (r ∨ s ) istrue.
b. Suppose that a compound proposition is symbolized by

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 ( p ∨q)⟹(r ⟺ s)
and that the truth values of p , q , r , and s are T , F , F , and T , respectively. Then the truth value of p ∨q is T , that

of s is , that of r ⟺ s is T . So the truth value of ( p ∨q) ⟹(r ⟺ s)isT .

Remark: When dealing with compound propositions, we shall adopt the following convention on the use of
parenthesis. Whenever “ ” or “ ” occur with “ ” or “ ”, we shall assume that “ ” or “ ” is applied first, and

p ∧q ⟹ r means( p ∧q)⟹ r , p ∨q ⟺ r means( p ∨q)⟺ r ,q ⟹ pmeans( q ) ⟹ ( p )∧¿,q ⟹ p ⟺ r

then “ ” or “ ” is then applied. For example,

means((q)⟹ p)⟺ r
However, it is always advisable to use brackets to indicate the order of the desired operations..

Definition 1.3:Two compound propositions P and Q are said to be equivalent if they have the same truth value for
all possible combinations of truth values for the component propositions occurring in both P and Q . In this case we
write P ≡Q .

Example 1.7:Let P : p ⟹ q .and Q :q ⟹ p. Then the truth table of these proposition is:
p q p q p⟹q q⟹ p
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

Then, P is equivalent to Q , since columns 5 and 6 of the above table are identical.
Example 1.8:Let P : p ⟹ q . and Q : p ⟹ q .Then the truth table of these proposion is:
p q p q p⟹q p⟹q
T T F F T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T T T T

Looking at columns 5 and 6 of the table we see that they are not identical. Thus P ≢Q .
It is useful at this point to mention the non-equivalence of certain conditional propositions.
Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse
Converse: The hypothesis of a converse statement is the conclusion of the conditional statement and the conclusion
of the converse statement is the hypothesis of the conditional statement.
Contrapositive: The hypothesis of a contrapositive statement is the negation of conclusion of the conditional
statement and the conclusion of the contrapositive statement is the negation of hypothesis of the conditional
statement.
Given the conditional p ⟹ q, we give the related conditional propositions:-
q ⟹ p: Converse of p ⟹ q
p ⟹ q: Inverse of p ⟹ q
q ⟹ p: Contrapositive of p ⟹ q
As we observed from example 1.7, the conditional p ⟹ q and its contrapositve q ⟹ p are equivalent. On the
other hand, p ⟹ q ≢ q ⟹ p and p ⟹ q ≢ p ⟹ q .
Example 1.9:
a. If Kidist lives in Addis Ababa, then she lives in Ethiopia.

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 Converse: If Kidist lives in Ethiopia, then she lives in Addis Ababa.
Contrapositive: If Kidist does not live in Ethiopia, then she does not live in Addis Ababa.
Inverse: If Kidist does not live in Addis Ababa, then she does not live in Ethiopia.
b. If it is morning, then the sun is in the east.
Converse: If the sun is in the east, then it is morning.
Contrapositive: If the sun is not in the east, then it is not morning.
Inverse: If it is not morning, then the sun is not the east.

1.
Propositions, under the relation of logical equivalence, satisfy various laws or identities, which are listed below.

a. p ≡ p ∨ p.
Idempotent 5. Complement Law
a. ( p)≡ p .
b. p ≡ p ∧ p.
2. Commutative Laws 6. Law of Contrapositive
a. p ∧q ≡ q ∧ p . p ⟹ q ≡q ⟹ p
b. p ∨q ≡ q ∨ p .
3. Associative Laws 7 De Morgan’s Laws
a. p ∧(q ∧r ) ≡( p ∧ q)∧ r .( p ∧q) ≡ p ∨ q.

( p ∨q)≡ p ∧ q
b . p ∨( q ∨r )≡( p ∨ q)∨ r .
4. Distributive Laws
a. p ∨(q ∧r ) ≡( p ∨ q)∧( p ∨r ).
b. p ∧(q ∨r )≡( p ∧ q)∨( p ∧r ).
1.1.4. Tautology and contradiction

Definition: A compound proposition is a tautology if it is always true regardless of the truth values of its
component propositions. If, on the other hand, a compound proposition is always false regardless of its component
propositions, we say that such a proposition is a contradiction.

Examples 1.10:
a. Suppose p is any proposition. Consider the compound propositions p ∨ pand p ∧ p.

p p p∨ p p∧ p
T F T F
F T T F

Observe that p ∨ p is a tautology while p ∧ p is a contradiction.

b. For any propositions pand q . Consider the compound proposition p ⟹(q ⟹ p). Let us make a truth
table and study the situation.

p q q⟹ p p ⟹(q ⟹ p)
T T T T
T F T T
T
F T F T
F F T

We have exhibited all the possibilities and we see that for all truth values of the constituent propositions, the
proposition p ⟹(q ⟹ p) is always true. Thus, p ⟹(q ⟹ p) is a tautology.
c. The truth table for the compound proposition ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧ q).

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 p q q p ∧q p⟹q ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧ q)
T T F F T F
T F T T F F
F T F F T F
F F T F T F

In example 1.10(c), the given compound proposition has a truth value F for every possible combination of
assignments of truth values for the component propositions pand q . Thus ( p ⟹ q ) ⟺( p ∧ q) is a contradiction.
Remark:
1. In a truth table, if a proposition is a tautology, then every line in its column has T as its entry;if a
proposition is a contradiction, every line in its column has F as its entry.
2. Two compound propositions P and Q are equivalent if and only if “ P ⟺ Q” is a tautology.
1.2. Open propositions and quantifiers

Definition 1.4: An open statement (also called a predicate) is a sentence that contains one or more variables and
whose truth value depends on the values assigned for the variables. We represent an open statement by a capital
letter followed by the variable(s) in parenthesis, e.g., P ( x ) , Q(x ) etc.

Example 1.11:Here are some open propositions:

a. x is the day before Sunday. b) y is a city in Africa. c) x is greater than y . d) x +4=−9.
It is clear that each one of these examples involves variables, but is not a proposition as we cannot assign a truth
value to it.
Remark
The collection of all allowable values for the variable in an open sentence is called the universal set (the universe of
discourse) and denoted by U .

Definition 1.5: Two open proposition P(x ) and Q(x ) are said to be equivalent if and only if

P ( a ) =Q(a)for all individual a . Note that if the universe U is specified, then P(x ) and Q(x ) are equivalent if
and only if P ( a ) =Q(a) for all a ∈ U .
2
Example 1.12:Let P ( x ) : x −1=0.
Q ( x ) :|x|≥ 1.
1
Let U ={−1 ,− , 0 , 1}.
2
Then for all a ∈ U ; P ( a ) and Q(a) have the same truth value.
2
P (−1 ) :(−1) −1=0 (T ) Q (−1 ) :|−1|≥1 (T )

( ) ( )| |
2
−1 −1 −1 −1
P :( ) −1=0 ( F ) Q : ≥ 1 (F)
2 2 2 2
P ( 0 ) :0−1=0 (F) Q ( 0 ) :|0|≥ 1 (F)
P ( 1 ) :1−1=0 (T ) Q ( 1 ) :|1|≥ 1 (T )
Therefore P ( a ) =Q(a) for all a ∈ U .

Definition 1.6: Let U be the universal set. An open proposition P ( x ) is a tautology if and only if P ( a ) is always
true for all values of a ∈ U .

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Example 1.13: The open proposition P ( x ) : x 2 ≥ 0 is a tautology.
The ways that an open proposition can be converted into a proposition, namely by a method called quantification.
Let P(x ) be an open proposition over the domain S. Adding the phrase “For every x ∈ S ” to P(x ) or “For some
x ∈ S ” to P(x ) produces a statement called a quantified statement.
Consider the following open propositions with universe .
a. R ( x ) : x 2 ≥0 . b ) P ( x ) : ( x +2 ) ( x−3 )=0. c) Q( x ): x 2 <0.
Then R ( x ) is always true for each x ∈ R ,
P ( x )is true only for x=−2 and x=3, and Q(x )is always false for all values of x ∈ R.
Hence, given an open proposition P(x ), with universe U , we observe that there are three possibilities.
a. P(x )is true for all x ∈ U . b ) P ( x )is true for some x ∈ U . c ) P(x )is false for all x ∈ U .
Now we proceed to study open propositions which are satisfied by “all” and “some” members of the given universe.

a. The phrase "for every x " is called a universal quantifier. We regard "for every x ," "for all x ," and "for

each x " as having the same meaning and symbolize each by “ (∀ x).” Think of the symbol as an
inverted A (representing all). If P(x ) is an open proposition with universeU , then ( ∀ x ) P(x ) is a
quantified proposition and is read as “every x ∈ U has the property P .”
b. The phrase "there exists an x " is called an existential quantifier. We regard "there exists an x ," "for some
x ," and "for at least one x " as having the same meaning, and symbolize each by “ (∃ x ).” Think of the
symbol as the backwards capital E (representing exists). If P(x ) is an open proposition with universe
U , then (∃ x )P( x) is a quantified proposition and is read as “there exists x ∈ U with the property P.”

Remarks:
i. To show that( ∀ x ) P(x )is F , it is sufficient to find at least onea ∈ U such that P(a) is F . Such an
element a ∈ U is called a counter example.
ii. ( ∃ x ) P(x)is F if we cannot find any a ∈ U having the property P.
Example 1.14:
a. Write the following statements using quantifiers.
i. For each real number x >0 , x 2+ x−6=0 .
Solution: ( ∀ x> 0 ) (x 2 + x−6=0).
ii. There is a real number x >0 such that x 2+ x−6=0.
Solution: ( ∃ x >0 ) (x 2+ x−6=0).
iii. The square of any real number is nonnegative.
Solution: ( ∀ x ∈ R ) (x 2 ≥ 0).
b.
i. Let P ( x ) : x 2 +1≥ 0 . The truth value for ( ∀ x ) P(x ) [i.e ( ∀ x ) (x 2+1 ≥ 0)] is T .
1 1
ii. Let P ( x ) : x < x 2. The truth value for ( ∀ x ) (x< x2 )is F . x= is a counterexample since ∈R
2 2
1 1
but < . On the other hand, ( ∃ x ) P(x) is true, since −1 ∈ R such that −1<1.
2 4
iii. Let P ( x ) :|x|=−1. The truth value for ( ∃ x ) P(x) is F since there is no real number whose
absolute value is −1.
Relationship between the existential and universal quantifiers

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If P ( x ) is a formula in x , consider the following four statements.
a. ( ∀ x ) P ( x ).
b. ( ∃ x ) P(x).
c. ( ∀ x ) P ( x ).
d. ( ∃ x ) P(x).
We might translate these into words as follows.
a. Everything has property P .
b. Something has property P.
c. Nothing has property P .
d. Something does not have property P .
Now (d) is the denial of (a), and (c) is the denial of (b), on the basis of everyday meaning. Thus, for example, the
existential quantifier may be defined in terms of the universal quantifier.
Now we proceed to discuss the negation of quantifiers. Let P ( x ) be an open proposition. Then ( ∀ x ) P ( x ) is false
only if we can find an individual “ a ” in the universe such that P ( a ) is false. If we succeed in getting such an
individual, then ( ∃ x ) P(x) is true. Hence ( ∀ x ) P ( x ) will be false if ( ∃ x ) P(x) is true. Therefore the negation of
( ∀ x ) P ( x )is ( ∃ x ) P(x). Hence we conclude that
( ∀ x ) P ( x ) ≡ ( ∃ x ) P(x ).
Similarly, we can easily verified that
( ∃ x ) P ( x ) ≡ ( ∀ x ) P(x ).
Remark:To negate a statement that involves the quantifiers and , change each to , change each to , and
negate the open statement.

Example 1.15:
Let U =R .
a. ( ∃ x ) ( x< x 2) ≡ ( ∀ x ) (x < x 2)
2
≡ ( ∀ x ) ( x ≥ x ).
b. ( ∀ x ) (4 x +1=0)≡ (∃ x ) (4 x +1=0)
≡ (∃ x ) (4 x +1 ≠ 0) .
Given propositions containing quantifiers we can form a compound proposition by joining them with connectives in
the same way we form a compound proposition without quantifiers. For example, if we have ( ∀ x ) P ( x ) and
( ∃ x ) Q(x) we can form ( ∀ x ) P ( x ) ⟺ ( ∃ x ) Q(x ).
Consider the following statements involving quantifiers. Illustrations of these along with translations appear below.
a. All rationals are reals.( ∀ x ) (Q(x)⟹ R(x)).
b. No rationals are reals.( ∀ x ) (Q(x)⟹ R(x)).
c. Some rationals are reals.( ∃ x ) (Q(x )∧ R(x )).
d. Some rationals are not reals.( ∃ x ) (Q(x )∧ R(x )).
Example 1.16:
Let U =¿ The set of integers.
Let P ( x ): x is a prime number.
Q ( x ): x is an even number.
R ( x ): x is an odd number.
Then
a. ( ∃ x ) [ P(x )⟹ Q(x)]is T ; since there is an x , say 2, such that P(2)⟹ Q(2) is T .
b. ( ∀ x ) [P( x)⟹ Q(x )]is F . As a counterexample take 7. Then P(7) is T and Q(7)is F . Hence
P(7) ⟹ Q(7).

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 c. ( ∀ x ) [R ( x) ∧ P(x )]is F .
d. ( ∀ x ) [(R ( x ) ∧ P ( x ) )⟹ Q(x)] is F .
Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations
So far, we have only considered cases in which universal and existential quantifiers appear simply. However, if we
consider cases in which universal and existential quantifiers occur in combination, we are lead to essentially new
logical structures. The following are the simplest forms of combinations:
1. ( ∀ x )( ∀ y ) P (x , y )
“for all x and for all y the relation P(x , y) holds”;
2. ( ∃ x ) ( ∃ y ) P(x , y )
“there is an x and there is a y for which P(x , y)holds”;
3. ( ∀ x )( ∃ y ) P( x , y)
“for every x there is a y such that P(x , y)holds”;
4. ( ∃ x ) ( ∀ y ) P ( x , y )
“there is an x which stands to every y in the relation P(x , y).”
Example 1.17:
Let U =¿ The set of integers.
Let P(x , y): x+ y=5.
a. (∃ x )(∃ y )P (x , y )means that there is an integer x and there is an integer y such that x + y=5 . This
statement is true when x=4and y=1 , since 4 + 1 = 5. Therefore, the statement (∃ x )(∃ y )P (x , y ) is
always true for this universe. There are other choices of x and y for which it would be true, but the
symbolic statement merely says that there is at least one choice for x and y which will make the statement
true, and we have demonstrated one such choice.
b. (∃ x )(∀ y) P(x , y )means that there is an integer x 0 such that for every y , x 0 + y=5 . This is false since
no fixed value of x 0 will make this true for all y in the universe; e.g. if x 0=1, then 1+ y=5 is false for
some y .
c. (∀ x)(∃ y) P(x , y ) means that for every integer x , there is an integer y such that
x + y=5 . Let x=a , then y=5−a will always be an integer, so this is a true statement.
d. (∀ x)(∀ y ) P(x , y )means that for every integer x and for every integer y , x + y=5 . This is false, for
if x=2and y=7 , we get 2+7=9 ≠ 5.
Example 1.18:
a. Consider the statement
For every two real numbers x and y , x 2+ y 2 ≥ 0 .
If we let
2 2
P(x, y): x + y ≥0
where the domain of both x and y is , the statement can be expressed as
( ∀ x ∈ R ) ( ∀ y ∈ R ) P(x , y)or as ( ∀ x ∈ R ) ( ∀ y ∈ R ) ( x2 + y 2 ≥ 0) .
Since x 2 ≥ 0 and y 2 ≥0 for all real numbers x and y , it follows that x 2+ y 2 ≥ 0 and so P(x , y) is true for all real
numbers x and y . Thus the quantified statement is true.
b. Consider the open statement
P ( x , y ) :|x−1|+| y−2|≤2
where the domain of the variable x is the set E of even integers and the domain of the variable y is the set O of odd
integers. Then the quantified statement
( ∃ x ∈ E )( ∃ y ∈O ) P(x , y)
can be expressed in words as
There exist an even integer x and an odd integer y such that |x−1|+| y−2|≤ 2.

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Since P ( 2 ,3 ) :1+1 ≤2 is true, the quantified statement is true.
c. Consider the open statement
P ( x , y ) : xy=1
+¿¿
where the domain of both x and y is the set Q of positive rational numbers. Then the quantified statement
¿
can be expressed in words as
For every positive rational number x , there exists a positive rational number y such that xy=1 .
+¿¿
It turns out that the quantified statement is true. If we replace Q by , then we have
( ∀ x ∈ R ) (∃ y ∈ R ) P (x , y ) .
Since x=0 and for every real number y , xy=0 ≠ 1, ( ∀ x ∈ R ) (∃ y ∈ R ) P (x , y ) is false.
d. Consider the open statement
P ( x , y ) : xyis odd
where the domain of both x and y is the set of natural numbers. Then the quantified statement
( ∃ x ∈ N ) ( ∀ y ∈ N ) P ( x , y ),
expressed in words, is
There exists a natural number x such that for every natural numbers y , xy is odd. The statement is false.
In general, from the meaning of the universal quantifier it follows that in an expression ( ∀ x )( ∀ y ) P (x , y ) the
two universal quantifiers may be interchanged without altering the sense of the sentence. This also holds for the
existential quantifies in an expression such as ( ∃ x ) ( ∃ y ) P(x , y ).

In the statement ( ∀ x )( ∃ y ) P( x , y) , the choice of y is allowed to depend on x - the y that works for one x need
not work for another x .On the other hand, in the statement ( ∃ y )( ∀ x ) P( x , y), the y must work for all x , i.e., y is
independent of x .For example, the expression( ∀ x )( ∃ y ) (x< y), where x and y are variables referring to the
domain of real numbers, constitutes a true proposition, namely, “For every number x , there is a number y , such that
x is less that y ,” i.e., “given any number, there is a greater number.” However, if the order of the symbol ( ∀ x ) and
( ∃ y ) is changed, in this case, we obtain:( ∃ y )( ∀ x ) (x< y), which is a false proposition, namely, “There is a
number which is greater than every number.” By transposing ( ∀ x )and ( ∃ y ), therefore, we get a different
statement.
The logical situation here is:
( ∃ y )( ∀ x ) P( x , y)⟹ ( ∀ x ) ( ∃ y ) P(x , y ).
Finally, we conclude this section with the remark that there are no mechanical rules for translating sentences from
English into the logical notation which has been introduced. In every case one must first decide on the meaning of
the English sentence and then attempt to convey that same meaning in terms of predicates, quantifiers, and, possibly,
individual constants.
1. 3. Argument and Validity

Definition 1.7:An argument (logical deduction) is an assertion that a given set of statements p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn ,
called hypotheses orpremises, yield another statement Q , called the conclusion. Such a logical deduction is denoted
by:
p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn ├ Q or
p1
p2
⟨ G , ∘⟩
pn
Q

10
Example 1.19:Consider the following argument:
If you study hard, then you will pass the exam.
You did not pass the exam.
Therefore, you did not study hard.
Let p: You study hard.
q : You will pass the exam.
The argument form can be written as:

p q
q
p
.

Definition 1.8: An argument form p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn ├ Q is said to be valid if Q is true whenever all the premises
p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn are true; otherwise it is invalid.

Example 1.20:Investigate the validity of the following argument:

a. p ⇒q ,¬q|−¬p
b. p ⇒q ,¬q ⇒r|− p
c. If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops were not good.
Solution: First we construct a truth table for the statements appearing in the argument forms.
a.
p q p q p⟹q
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T

The premises p ⟹ q and q are true simultaneously in row 4 only. Since in this case p is also true, the argument is
valid.
b.
p q r q p⟹q q⟹r
T T T F T T
T T F F T T
T F T T F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F T F F T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T F
The 1st, 2nd, 5th, 6th and 7th rows are those in which all the premises take value T . In the 5th, 6th and 7th rows however
the conclusion takes value F . Hence, the argument form is invalid.
c. Let p: It rains.
q : Crops are good.
p: It did not rain.

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q : Crops were not good.
The argument form is p ⟹ q , p ├ q
Now we can use truth table to test validity as follows:

p q p q p⟹q
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T
The premises p ⟹ q and p are true simultaneously in row 4 only. Since in this case q is also true, the argument is
valid.
Remark:
1. What is important in validity is the form of the argument rather than the meaning or content of the
statements involved.
2. The argument form p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn ├ Q is valid iff the statement
( p1 ∧ p2 ∧ p 3 ∧ … ∧ pn )⟹ Q is a tautology.
Rules of inferences
Below we list certain valid deductions called rules of inferences.

1. Modes Ponens
p
p⟹q
q
2. Modes Tollens
q
p⟹q
p
3. Principle of Syllogism
p⟹q
q⟹r
p⟹r
4. Principle of Adjunction
a. p
q
p ∧q
b. q
p ∨q
5. Principle of Detachment
p ∧q
p,q
6. Modes Tollendo Ponens
p
p ∨q
q
7. Modes PonendoTollens
( p ∧q)
p
q

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 8. Constructive Dilemma
( p ⟹ q ) ∧(r ⟹ s)
p ∨r
q∨s
9. Principle of Equivalence
p⟺q
p
q
10. Principle of Conditionalization
p
q⟹ p

Formal proof of validity of an argument

Definition 1.9: A formal proof of a conclusion Q given hypotheses p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn is a sequence of stapes, each
of which applies some inference rule to hypotheses or previously proven statements (antecedent) to yield a new true
statement (the consequent).

A formal proof of validity is given by writing on the premises and the statements which follows from them in a
single column, and setting off in another column, to the right of each statement, its justification. It is convenient to
list all the premises first.
Example 1.21: Show that p ⟹ q , q ├ p is valid.
Solution:
1. q is true premise
2. p ⟹ q premise
3. q ⟹ p contrapositive of (2)
4. p Modes Ponens using (1) and (3)
Example 1.22: Show that the hypotheses
It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.
If we go swimming, then it is sunny.
If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.
If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.
Lead to the conclusion:
We will be home by sunset.
Let p: It is sunny this afternoon.
q : It is colder than yesterday.
r : We go swimming.
s: We take a canoe trip.
t : We will be home by sunset.
Then
1. p ∧q hypothesis
2. p simplification using (1)
3. r ⟹ p hypothesis
4. r Modus Tollens using (2) and (3)
5. r ⟹ s hypothesis
6. s Modus Ponens using (4) and (5)
7. s ⟹ t hypothesis

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 8. t Modus Ponens using (6) and (7)
1.4. Set theory
1.4.1. The concept of a set
.The term set refers to a well-defined collection of objects that share a certain property or certain properties. The
term “well-defined” here means that the set is described the same properties.If A is a set, then the objects of the
collection A are called the elements or members of the set A . If x is an element of the set A , we write x ∈ A . If x is
not an element of the set A , we write x ∉ A .
As a convention, we use capital letters to denote the names of sets and lowercase letters for elements of a set.
Note that for each objects x and each set A , exactly one of x A or x A but not both must be true.
1.4.2. Description of sets
Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four different ways.
1. Verbal Method
Describing set by using ordinary English statement with minimum mathematical symbolization of the property
of the elements .
Example 1.23:
a. The set of counting numbers less than ten.
2. Roster/Complete Listing Method
If the elements of a set can all be listed, we list them all element between a pair of braces without repetition
separating by commas, a set is called the roster/complete listing method.
Examples 1.24:
a. The set of vowels in English alphabet may also be describedas {a , e , i, o ,u }.
b. The set of positive factors of 24 is also described as {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 6 , 8 ,12 , 24 }.

i. We agree on the convention that the order of writing the elements in the list is immaterial. As a result the
Remark:

sets {a , b , c },{b , c ,a } and {c , a , b } contain the same elements, namely a , b and c .

ii. The set {a , a , b , b , b } contains just two distinct elements; namely a andb , hence it is the same set as
{ a , b } . We list distinct elements without repetition.
Example 1.25:
a. Let A={a , b , {c }}. Elements of A are a , b and {c }.
Notice that c and { c } are different objects. Here { c } ∈ A but c ∉ A .
b. Let B= { { a } }. The only element of Bis{a }. Buta ∉ B .
c. Let C={a , b ,{a , b },{a , {a }}}. Then C has four elements.
The readers are invited to write down all the elements of C.
3. Partial Listing Method
In many occasions, the number of elements of a set may be too large to list them all; and in other occasions
there may not be an end to the list. In such cases we look for a common property of the elements and describe
the set by partially listing the elements.
Example 1.26:
a. The set of all counting numbers is N={1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , … }.
b. The set of non-positive integers is {… ,−4 ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 , 0 }.
4. Set-builder Method
When all the elements satisfy a common property P, we express the situation as an open proposition P(x ) and
describe the set using a method called the Set-builder Method as follows:
A={x∨P(x )}∨ A={ x : P(x )}
Example 1.27: The following sets are described using the set-builder method.
a. A={x∨x is a vowel ∈the English alphabet }.
b. B={t∨t is an even integer }.

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Definition 1.10: The set which has no element is called the empty (or null) set and is denoted by ϕ or {} .

Example 1.28: The set of x ∈ R such that x 2+ 1=0 is an empty set.

Relationships between two sets

Definition 1.11: Set B is said to be a subset of set A (or is contained in A ), denoted by B⊆ A , if every element
of B is an element of A , i.e.,
( ∀ x ) (x ∈ B ⟹ x ∈ A ).
It follows from the definition that set B is not a subset of set A if at least one element of B is not an element of A .
i.e., B⊈ A ⟺ ( ∃ x )( x ∈ B ⟹ x ∉ A ) . In such cases we write B⊈ A or A ⊉ B.

Remarks:For any set A , ϕ ⊆ A and A ⊆ A .

Example 1.29:
a. If A={a , b } , B={a , b , c } and C={a , b , d }, then A ⊆ B and A ⊆ C . On the other hand, it is
clear that: B⊈ A , B⊈C and C ⊈ B .

Definition 1.12: Sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain exactly the same elements. In this case, we write
A=B . That is,
( ∀ x ) (x ∈ B ⟺ x ∈ A ).

Example 1.30:
a. The sets {1 , 2 ,3 }, {2 ,1 , 3 }, {1 , 3 , 2} are all equal.

Definition 1.13: Set A is said to be a proper subset of set B if every element of A is also an element of B, but B
has at least one element that is not in A . In this case, we write A ⊂ B. We also say B is aproper super set of A, and
write B⊃ A . It is clear that
A ⊂ B ⟺[ ( ∀ x ) (x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈ B) ∧( A ≠ B)] . (⊂ read as proper subset, ⊃ read as super proper subset)

Definition 1.14: Let A be a set. The power set of A , dented by P( A), is the set whose elements are all subsets of
A . That is,
P ( A )={B : B ⊆ A }.

Example 1.31:Let A={x , y , z } . As noted before, ϕ and A are subset of A . Moreover,

{ x } , { y } , { z } , { x , y } , { x , z } and { y , z } are also subsets of A . Therefore,
P ( A )={ϕ , { x } , { y } , { z } , { x , y } , { x , z } , { y , z } , A }.
Frequently it is necessary to limit the topic of discussion to elements of a certain fixed set and regard all sets under
consideration as a subset of this fixed set. We call this set the universal set or the universe and denoted by U .
1.4.3. Set Operations and Venn diagrams

Definition 1.15: The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all elements that are either in A or
in B (or in both sets). That is,
A ∪ B={ x :( x ∈ A)∨(x ∈ B)}.

As easily seen the union operator “ ” in the theory of set is the counterpart of the logical operator “ ”.

15
Definition 1.16: The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all elements that are in A
and B. That is,
A ∩ B={ x :(x ∈ A)∧(x ∈ B)}.

As suggested by definition 1.15, the intersection operator “ ” in the theory of sets is the counterpart of the logical
operator “ ”.
Note: - Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint sets if A ∩ B=ϕ.
Example 1.32:
a. Let A={ 0 , 1, 3 , 5 ,6 }and B={1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 }. Then,
A ∪ B= {0 , 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 } and A ∩ B={1 ,3 , 6 }.

Definition 1.17: The difference between two sets A and B, denoted by A−B , is the of all elements in A and not in
B; this set is also called the relative complement of B with respect to A . Symbolically,
A−B={x : x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B }.

Example 1.33:If ¿ {1 , 3 ,5 } , B={1, 2 }, then A−B={3 , 5 } and B− A={2 }.

Definition 1.18:Let A be a subset of a universal set U . The absolute complement (or simply complement) of A ,
denoted by A ' (or Ac or A ¿, is defined to be the set of all elements of U that are not in A . That is,
' '
A ={ x : x ∈U ∧ x ∉ A }or x ∈ A ⟺ x ∉ A ⟺( x ∈ A).

Notice that taking the absolute complement of A is the same as finding the relative complement of A with respect
to the universal set U . That is,
'
A =U − A .
Example 1.34:
a. If U ={0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 }, and if A={3 , 4 } , then A' ={3 , 4 }.

Theorem 1.1:For any two sets A and B, each of the following holds.
1. ( A)= A .
2. A=U – A .
3. A – B=A B ' .
4. ( A B)=A B ' .
5. ( A B)=A B ' .
6. A ⊆ B ⟺ B ' ⊆ A ' .

Now we define the symmetric difference of two sets.

Definition 1.17: The symmetric difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A Δ B , is the set
A Δ B= ( A−B ) ∪(B− A) .

Example 1.35: Let U ={1 , 2, 3 , … , 10} be the universal set, A={2 , 4 ,6 , 8 , 9 , 10 }and B={3 ,5 , 7 , 9 }.
Then B− A={3 , 5 , 7 }and A−B={2 , 4 ,6 ,8 , 10 }. Thus A ΔB={2 ,3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 10} .

Theorem 1.2:For any three sets A , B and C , each of the following holds.
a. A ∪ B=B ∪ A . ( is commutative)

16
 b. A ∩ B=B ∩ A .( is commutative)
c. ( A ∪ B)∪ C= A ∪( B ∪ C).( is associative)
d. ( A ∩ B)∩C= A ∩(B ∩C ).( is associative)
e. A ∪(B ∩C)=( A ∪ B)∩(A ∪ C).( is distributive over )

f. A ∩(B ∪C)=( A ∩ B)∪(A ∩C).( is distributive over )

Let us prove property “e” formally.

x ∈ A ∪ ( B ∩C ) ⟺(x ∈ A)∨(x ∈ B∩ C)(definition of )

⟺ x ∈ A ∨( x ∈ B ∧ x ∈C)(definition of )
⟺(x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B)∧( x ∈ A ∨ x ∈C) ( is distributive over )
⟺(x ∈ A ∪ B)∧ ¿) (definition of )
⟺ x ∈( A ∪ B)∩( A ∪ C)(definitio
n of )
Therefore, we have A ∪ ( B∩ C )=( A ∪ B)∩(A ∪ C).
The readers are invited to prove the rest part of theorem (1.2).
Venn diagrams
While working with sets, it is helpful to use diagrams, called Venn diagrams, to illustrate the relationships
involved. A Venn diagram is a schematic or pictorial representative of the sets involved in the discussion. Usually
sets are represented as interlocking circles, each of which is enclosed in a rectangle, which represents the universal
set U .

In some occasions, we
list the elements of set A
inside the closedcurve
representing A .
Example 1.36:
a. If U ={1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 , 6 , 7 }and A={2 , 4 ,6 }, then a Venndiagram representation of these two
sets looks like thefollowing.

17