Definition. Let G be a nonempty set and let ∗ be a binary operation on G.

We
say that G is a group with respect to ∗ or that G is a group under ∗ or that (G, ∗)
is a group provided the following hold.

(i) For any pair a, b of elements in G, a ∗ b is a uniquely determined element of

G.

(ii) For all a, b, c ∈ G, we have

(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).

(iii) There is an element e in G such that, for all a ∈ G:

a ∗ e = a, e ∗ a = a.
(iv) For all a ∈ G, there is an x ∈ G such that

a ∗ x = e, x ∗ a = e.

(i) For any pair a, b of elements in G, a ∗ b is a uniquely determined element of

G.
This is called the closure axiom. We say that G is closed with respect to ∗
or G is closed under ∗.

(ii) For all a, b, c ∈ G, we have

(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).

∗ is said to be associative in case the above equation holds for all a, b, c ∈ G.

(iii) Notice the order of the quantifiers: ∃∀.

∃e∀a(a ∗ e = a ∧ e ∗ a = a).

Such an e is called an identity element of G.

(iv) Notice the order of the quantifiers: ∀∃.

∀a∃x(a ∗ x = e ∧ x ∗ a = e).

Such an x is called an inverse of a. Here x depends on a.

1 Lemma. Let G be a group with respect to ∗, let e be an identity element of G.

e is the unique identity element of G.
Every element has a unique inverse.

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 Proof: Suppose that e and f are identities of G. Then e ∗ f = e and e ∗ f = f ,
so e = e ∗ f = f .
Let a ∈ G. Suppose that x, y ∈ G are inverses of a. Then

(x ∗ a) ∗ y = x ∗ (a ∗ y)
e∗y =x∗e
y = x.

Definition. Let G be a group with respect to ∗.

The unique element e of G that satifies

for all a ∈ G: a∗e=a e∗a=a

is called the identity element of G.

Let a be an element of G; the unique element x of G that satifies

a ∗ x = e, x∗a=e

is called the inverse of a, denoted by a−1 .

Remember this page?

(i) For any bijections f : A −→ A and g : A −→ A, their composition g ◦ f is a
bijection from A to A.
(ii) For any bijections f : A −→ A and g : A −→ A and h : A −→ A, we have

(h ◦ g) ◦ f = h ◦ (g ◦ f ).

(iii) The identity function idA is a bijection from A to A and

f ◦ idA = f, idA ◦ f = f for all bijections f from A to A.

(iv) For every bijection f from A to A, there is a bijection f −1 : A −→ A such

that
f ◦ f −1 = idA , f −1 ◦ f = idA .

Let A be any nonempty set. Let SA denote the set of all bijections from A onto
A. Then SA is a group with respect to the composition ◦ of functions.
Do you remember this page?
Let n be a positive integer.
(i) For any a, b in Zn , their sum a + b is an element of Zn .
(ii) For all elements a, b, c in Zn , we have

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

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(iii) There is an element 0̄ in Zn , and for every a in Zn , we have
a + 0̄ = a, 0̄ + a = a.

(iv) For every a in Zn , there is an element −a ∈ Zn such that

a + −a = 0̄, −a + a = 0̄.

Thus Zn is a group under addition.

(i) For any a, b in Z, their sum a + b is an element of Z.

(ii) For all elements a, b, c in Z, we have
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

(iii) There is an element 0 in Z, and for every a in Z, we have

a + 0 = a, 0 + a = a.

(iv) For every a in Z, there is an element −a ∈ Z such that

a + (−a) = 0, (−a) + a = 0.

Z is a group with respect to addition.

Q is a group with respect to addition.
R is a group with respect to addition.
C is a group with respect to addition.

C \ {0} is a group with respect to multiplication.

R \ {0} is a group with respect to multiplication.
Q \ {0} is a group with respect to multiplication.

Z \ {0} is not a group with respect to multiplication.

For elements a, b ∈ Z, we write a ∗ b = a + b + 2. Is Z a group with respect to
∗?
(i) For any integers a, b ∈ Z, the element a + b + 2 = a ∗ b is an integer, so Z is
closed with respect to ∗.

(ii) Let’s check associativity. For all a, b, c ∈ Z, we have

(a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b + 2) ∗ c
= (a + b + 2) + c + 2
= a + (b + 2 + c) + 2
= a + (b + c + 2) + 2
= a + (b ∗ c) + 2
= a ∗ (b ∗ c),
so ∗ is an associative operation on Z.

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(iii) Is there an identity element? Is there an e ∈ Z such that a ∗ e = a and
e ∗ a = a for all a ∈ Z? If there exists such an integer e, then e must satisfy

a+e+2=a

and e must be equal to −2.

Let’s check whether −2 is an identity element. First we notice that −2 ∈ Z.

For all a ∈ Z, we have

a ∗ (−2) = a + (−2) + 2 = a;
(−2) ∗ a = (−2) + a + 2 = a

and therefore −2 is an identity element.

(iv) Does every integer a have an inverse in Z? Let a be an element of Z. If a

has an inverse x, then x must satisfy

a ∗ x = −2, a + x + 2 = −2, x = −4 − a.

Let’s check whether −4 − a is an inverse of a. We notice that −4 − a ∈ Z. Also

a ∗ (−4 − a) = a + (−4 − a) + 2 = −2,

(−4 − a) ∗ a = (−4 − a) + a + 2 = −2,

and −4 − a is indeed an inverse of a. Thus every element of Z has an inverse in

Z. Therefore Z is a group with respect to ∗.
For elements a, b ∈ Q \ {1}, we write a ◦ b = ab − a − b + 2. Is Q \ {1} a group
with respect to ◦?

(i) For any rational numbers a, b ∈ Q \ {1}, the element ab − a − b + 2 = a ◦ b

is a rational number. Does it belong to Q \ {1}? Is it different from 1? Can
it be equal to 1?

If a ◦ b = 1, then

ab − a − b + 2 = 1
ab − a − b + 1 = 0
(a − 1)(b − 1) = 0
a = 1 or b = 1,

contrary to a ∈ Q \ {1} and b ∈ Q \ {1}.

Thus for every a, b ∈ Q \ {1}, we have a ◦ b ∈ Q \ {1}.
In other words, Q \ {1} is closed with respect to ◦.

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 (ii) Is ◦ associative? For all a, b, c ∈ Q \ {1}, we have

(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a ◦ b)c − (a ◦ b) − c + 2
= (ab − a − b + 2)c
− (ab − a − b + 2) − c + 2
= abc − ac − bc + 2c
− ab + a + b − 2 − c + 2
= abc − ab − ac − bc + a + b + c (1)

and

a◦(b ◦ c) = a(b ◦ c) − a − (b ◦ c) + 2
= a(bc − b − c + 2)
− a − (bc − b − c + 2) + 2
= abc − ab − ac + 2a
− a − bc + b + c − 2 + 2
= abc − ab − ac − bc + a + b + c. (2)

By the equality of (1) and (2), we conclude that ◦ is associative.

(iii) Is there an identity element in Q \ {1}? Is there an e ∈ Q \ {1} such that

a ◦ e = a and e ◦ a = a for all a ∈ Q \ {1}?

If such an e exists, then a ◦ e = a must hold, i.e.,

ae − a − e + 2 = a
ae − 2a − e + 2 = 0
a(e − 2) − (e − 2) = 0
(a − 1)(e − 2) = 0
e=2

must hold. Let’s check whether 2 is an identity in Q \ {1}.

First we note that 2 ∈ Q \ {1}.

Also for any a ∈ Q \ {1}, we have

a ◦ 2 = a2 − a − 2 + 2 = a,
2 ◦ a = 2a − 2 − a + 2 = a.

Thus 2 is indeed an identity element.

(iv) Does every element a ∈ Q \ {1} have an inverse?

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 If there exists an inverse of a ∈ Q \ {1} and if we call it x, then x must satisfy
a ◦ x = 2, so

ax − a − x + 2 = 2
ax − a − x = 0
ax − a − x + 1 = 1
(a − 1)(x − 1) = 1
1
x−1=
a−1
1 a
x=1+ =
a−1 a−1
must hold.
a a
Let’s see whether a−1 is an inverse of a. We observe that a−1 is a rational
number and that a−1 6= 1, so a−1
a a
∈ Q \ {1}.
For all a ∈ Q \ {1}, we have
a a a
a◦ =a −a− +2
a−1 a−1 a−1
a2 a2 − a a
= − − +2
a−1 a−1 a−1
a2 − a2 + a − a
= +2
a−1
= 2,

a a a
◦a= a− −a+2
a−1 a−1 a−1
a2 a a2 − a
= − − +2
a−1 a−1 a−1
a2 − a − a2 + a
= +2
a−1
= 2,
a
so a−1is an inverse of a.
Hence Q \ {1} is a group with respect to ◦.

Definition. Let G be a group with respect to ◦.

If the number of elements of G is finite and equal to n ∈ N, then (G, ◦) is said

to be a group of finite order or a finite group and n is called the order of (G, ◦).
The order of (G, ◦) is denoted by |G|.

If the number of elements of G is not finite, then (G, ◦) is said to be a group

of infinite order or an infinite group. In this case we write |G| = ∞.

6
 We will not distinguish between countably infinite sets and uncountable sets.

Definition. A group (G, ∗) is called a commutative group or an abelian group, if,

in addition to the group axioms (i)-(iv), a fifth axiom

(v) a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b ∈ G.

holds.

An operation ∗ which satisfies (v) is called a commutative operation.

Cayley table
A convenient device for investigating groups.
Let G be a group with respect to ◦, of small order n.
Make a table of n rows and n columns, label the rows and columns by the
elements of G.
In the cell where the row of a ∈ G and the column of b ∈ G meet, we write
a ◦ b.
This square is known as the Cayley table or the operation table (multiplication
or addition table) of the group (G, ◦).

◦ b

a a◦b

Addition table of the group (Z4 , +)

+ 0̄ 1̄ 2̄ 3̄
0̄ 0̄ 1̄ 2̄ 3̄
1̄ 1̄ 2̄ 3̄ 0̄
2̄ 2̄ 3̄ 0̄ 1̄
3̄ 3̄ 0̄ 1̄ 2̄

2 Lemma. Let G be a group with respect to ◦ and let a, b ∈ G.

(1) There is one and only one x ∈ G such that a ◦ x = b.
(2) There is one and only one y ∈ G such that y ◦ a = b.

Proof: (1) Existence of x. Put x = a−1 ◦b. Then x ∈ G and a◦x = a◦(a−1 ◦b) =
(a ◦ a−1 ) ◦ b = e ◦ b = b.

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 Uniqueness of x. Suppose that x1 and x2 are elements of G with a ◦ x1 = b
and a ◦ x2 = b. Then

a ◦ x1 = b = a ◦ x2
a−1 ◦ (a ◦ x1 ) = a−1 ◦ (a ◦ x2 )
(a−1 ◦ a) ◦ x1 = (a−1 ◦ a) ◦ x2
e ◦ x1 = e ◦ x2
x1 = x2 .

Thus x is unique.
This completes the proof of (1). □

3 Lemma. Let G be a group with respect to ◦ and let a, b ∈ G.

(1) There is one and only one x ∈ G such that a ◦ x = b.
(2) There is one and only one y ∈ G such that y ◦ a = b.
For every a ∈ G, the functions
G −→ G x 7−→ a ◦ x,
G −→ G y 7−→ y ◦ a

are bijections from G to G.

The previous lemma has a simple interpretation with Cayley tables.

Part (1) states: in the row labelled by a, every element b of the group does
appear, and appears exactly once.

◦ x ◦ a

a b y b

Part (2) states: in the column labelled by a, every element b of the group does
appear, and appears exactly once.

Each row and each column is a complete list of the elements of the group,
without repetitions.

A group of order 3.
G = {e, a, b}, ◦.

◦ e a b
e e a b
a a b e
b b e a

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 (a ◦ a) ◦ a = a ◦ (a ◦ a)
(a ◦ a) ◦ b = a ◦ (a ◦ b)
(a ◦ b) ◦ a = a ◦ (b ◦ a)
(a ◦ b) ◦ b = a ◦ (b ◦ b)

(b ◦ a) ◦ a = b ◦ (a ◦ a)
(b ◦ a) ◦ b = b ◦ (a ◦ b)
(b ◦ b) ◦ a = b ◦ (b ◦ a)
(b ◦ b) ◦ b = b ◦ (b ◦ b)

4 Lemma. Let G be a group and let a1 , a2 , . . . , am , b be elements of G. If

ai b = bai for all i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , m}, then

(a1 a2 . . . am )b = b(a1 a2 . . . am ).

Proof: We make induction on m. The case m = 1 is included in the hypothesis.

Suppose now m ⩾ 1. Inductively suppose that the claim is true for m − 1.
We have

(a1 . . . am−1 am )b = (a1 . . . am−1 )(am b)

= (a1 . . . am−1 )(bam )
= ((a1 . . . am−1 )b)am
= (b(a1 . . . am−1 ))am
= b((a1 . . . am−1 )am )
= b(a1 . . . am−1 am ).

□
Let G be a group and let a, b, c be elements of G. Suppose that ab = ba,
ac = ca, bc = cb.

a(cb) = a(bc) = (bc)a = b(ca) = b(ac)

= (ba)c = c(ba) = c(ab) (1)

Therefore:

(ab)c = a(bc)
b(ac) = b(ca)
c(ab) = c(ba)

and abc = acb = bac = bca = cab = cba.

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5 Lemma. Let G be a group.
For all n ∈ N, n ⩾ 2,
for all a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ G such that ai aj = aj ai whenever i, j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n},
for all arrangements k1 , k2 , . . . , kn of 1, 2, . . . , n,
we have
ak1 ak2 . . . akn = a1 a2 . . . an .

Proof: We will make induction on the number of factors.

Case n = 2. We have a1 a2 = a2 a1 by hypothesis.
The assertion has been verified in the case n = 3.
Suppose that n ⩾ 4 and that the the claim is true for n − 1 or less number of
factors of pairwise commuting elements and for all arrangements of them.
Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be pairwise commuting elements of G and let k1 , k2 , . . . ,
kn be an arrangement of 1, 2, . . . , n.
Then n is equal to one of the numbers k1 , k2 , . . . , kn , say n = kj .
Then k1 , . . . , kj−1 , kj+1 , . . . , kn is an arrangement of 1, 2, . . . , n − 1. We
have

ak1 ak2 . . . akn = (ak1 ak2 . . . akj−1 )(akj (akj+1 . . . akn ))

= (ak1 ak2 . . . akj−1 )((akj+1 . . . akn )akj )
= (ak1 ak2 . . . akj−1 akj+1 . . . akn )akj
= (a1 a2 . . . an−1 )akj
= (a1 a2 . . . an−1 )an
= a1 a2 . . . an−1 an .

multiplicative notation additive notation

a · b, ab a+b
am ma
(a−1 )n = (an )−1 n(−a) = −(na)
a−n = (a−1 )n (−n)a = n(−a)
am an = am+n ma + na = (m + n)a
(am )n = amn n(ma) = (mn)a
(ab)n = an bn (if ab = ba) n(a + b) = na + nb
(if a + b = b + a).

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