Tensile/compressive testing of wooden and metal materials

Ojectives

The laboratory work is engaged in the testing of tensile and compressive strength of
wood and metal materials in order to meet the requirements of the course outcomes
of the subject which are the following; evaluate the types, properties and
characteristics of engineering materials, and evaluate the behaviour of materials
subject to different kinds of testing.

Tension Test: To determine the tensile strength, yield strength, and ductility of a
material by applying a uniaxial tensile force until failure.
‘
Compression Test: To determine the compressive strength, deformation behavior,
and other mechanical properties of a material under a uniaxial compressive load.

Theoretical background

Taken from AZO MATERIALS (May 19 2006)

Stress is defined as the force per unit area. Thus, the formula for calculating stress
is:

Where σ denotes stress, F is load and A is the cross sectional area. The most
commonly used units for stress are the SI units, or Pascals (or N/m2), although other
units like psi (pounds per square inch) are sometimes used.

Forces may be applied in different directions such as:

• Tensile or stretching
• Compressive or squashing/crushing
• Shear or tearing/cutting
• Torsional or twisting
This gives rise to numerous corresponding types of stresses and hence
measure/quoted strengths. While data sheets often quote values for strength (e.g
compressive strength), these values are purely uniaxial, and it should be noted that
in real life several different stresses may be acting.

Tensile Strength

The tensile strength is defined as the maximum tensile load a body can withstand
before failure divided by its cross sectional area. This property is also sometimes
referred to Ultimate Tensile Stress or UTS.
 Fig. 1 Tensile Force on an Object

Typically, ceramics perform poorly in tension, while metals are quite good. Fibres
such as glass, Kevlar and carbon fibre are often added polymeric materials in the
direction of the tensile force to reinforce or improve their tensile strength.

Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is defined as the maximum compressive load a body can bear
prior to failure, divided by its cross sectional area.

Fig.2 Compressive Force on an object

Ceramics typically have good tensile strengths and are used under compression e.g.
concrete.

Yield Strength

Yield strength is defined as the stress at which a material changes from elastic
deformation to plastic deformation. Once the this point, known as the yield point is
exceeded, the materials will no longer return to its original dimensions after the
removal of the stress.

According to BJYU’S(n.d.), Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the

body in the direction of force applied, divided by the initial dimensions of the body.

The following equation gives the relation for deformation in terms of the length of a
solid:
ϵ=δL/L

where ε is the strain due to the stress applied, δl is the change in length and L is the
original length of the material. The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines
the relative change in shape.

Types of Strain
Strain experienced by a body can be of two types depending on stress application as
follows:
Tensile Strain
The deformation or elongation of a solid body due to applying a tensile force or
stress is known as Tensile strain. In other words, tensile strain is produced when a
body increases in length as applied forces try to stretch it.

Compressive Strain
Compressive strain is the deformation in a solid due to the application of
compressive stress. In other words, compressive strain is produced when a body
decreases in length when equal and opposite forces try to compress it.

Stress-Strain Curve
When we study solids and their mechanical properties, information regarding
their elastic properties is most important. We can learn about the elastic properties of
materials by studying the stress-strain relationships, under different loads, in these
materials.
The material’s stress-strain curve gives its stress-strain relationship. In a stress-
strain curve, the stress and its corresponding strain values are plotted. An example
of a stress-strain curve is given below.

Explaining Stress-Strain Graph

The different regions in the stress-strain diagram are:

Fig. 3 Stress-Strain Diagram

(i) Proportional Limit
It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the
stress-strain ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus.
The point OA in the graph represents the proportional limit.
(ii) Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position
when the load acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material
doesn’t return to its original position, and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it.

(iii) Yield Point

The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform
plastically. After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs.
There are two yield points (i) upper yield point (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point
It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before
failure. Beyond this point, failure occurs.
(v) Fracture or Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes
place.

Hooke’s Law
In the 19th-century, while studying springs and elasticity, English scientist Robert
Hooke noticed that many materials exhibited a similar property when the stress-
strain relationship was studied. There was a linear region where the force required to
stretch the material was proportional to the extension of the material, known as
Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied
stress within the elastic limit of that material.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as:
F = –k.x
Where F is the force, x is the extension in length, and k is the constant of
proportionality known as the spring constant in N/m.

TENSILE TESTING

TWI GLOBAL said, that,Tensile Testing is a form of tension testing and is

a destructive engineering and materials science test whereby controlled
tension is applied to a sample until it fully fails.

This is one of the most common mechanical testing techniques. It is used to find out
how strong a material is and also how much it can be stretched before it breaks. This
test method is used to determine yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, ductility,
strain hardening characteristics, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.

Test Properties

Yield Strength
The yield strength is the point at which plastic deformation occurs under stress. This
is determined during testing over a measured gauge length via the use of devices
known as extensometers. The devices may be either be mechanical clip on or video
where non-contact is a limitation, e.g. elevated temperature testing.

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

The UTS is the maximum stress that a specimen is exposed to during testing. This
may differ from the specimen's strength when breaking depending on if it is brittle,
ductile or has properties of both. These material properties can change depending
on environment, for example in extreme hot or cold conditions.

Ductility

Ductility relates to the elongation of a tensile test. The percentage of elongation is

calculated by the maximum gage length divided by the original gage length. It is
commonly described

Strain Hardening

How much it harderns with plastic defremation.

Modulus of Elasticity (E) (Stress/Strain)

The modulus of elasticity also known as Young's modulus measures the stiffness of
a specimen whereby the material will return to its original condition once the load has
been removed. Once the material has been stretched to the point where it no longer
returns to its original length and permanent deformation is shown, Hooke's Law no
longer applies. This is known as the elastic or proportonal limit (also the yield
strength).

Why is Tensile Testing Performed?

Tensile testing provides details of the tensile mechanical properties of a material.

These properties can be plotted on a graph as a stress/ strain curve to show details
such as the point at which the material failed as well as providing details of
properties such as the modulus of elasticity, strain and yield strength.

Tensile testing has a variety of uses, including:

 Selecting materials for an application

 Predicting how a material will perform under different forces
 Determining whether the requirements of a specification, contract or standard
are met
 Demonstrating proof of concept for a new product
 Proving characteristics for a proposed patent
 Providing standard quality assurance data for scientific and engineering
functions
 Comparing technical data for different material options
 Material testing to provide evidence for use in legal proceedings
Compressive Testing

AZO MATERIAL says, “Compression testing is used to determine how a

product or material reacts when it is compressed, squashed, crushed or
flattened by measuring fundamental parameters that determine the specimen
behavior under a compressive load.”

These fundamental parameters include the elastic limit, which for "Hookean"
materials is approximately equal to the proportional limit, and also known as yield
point or yield strength, Young's Modulus (these, although mostly associated with
tensile testing, may have compressive analogs) and compressive strength.

Compression testing can be undertaken as part of the design process, in the

production environment or in the quality control laboratory, and can be used to:

 Assess the strength of components e.g. automotive and aeronautical control

switches, compression springs, bellows, keypads, package seals, PET containers,
PVC / ABS pipes, solenoids, etc.
 Characterize the compressive properties of materials e.g. foam, metal, PET,
and other plastics and rubber
 Assess the performance of products e.g. the expression force of a syringe or
the load-displacement characteristics of a tennis ball

What are the Types of Compression Testing?

Types of compression testing include:

 Flexure/Bend
 Spring Testing
 Top-load/Crush

What are the Benefits of Compression Testing?

Compression testing provides data on the integrity and safety of materials,

components and products, helping manufacturers ensure that their finished products
are fit-for-purpose and manufactured to the highest quality.

The data produced in a compression test can be used in many ways including:

 To determine batch quality

 To determine consistency in manufacture
 To aid in the design process
 To reduce material costs and achieve lean manufacturing goals
 To ensure compliance with international and industry standards
Materials Under Compression

Certain materials subjected to a compressive force show initially a linear relationship

between stress and strain. This is the physical manifestation of Hooke's Law, which
states:

E = Stress (s) / Strain (e)

where E is known as Young's Modulus for compression. This value represents how
much the material will deform under applied compressive loading before plastic
deformation occurs. A material's ability to return to its original shape after
deformation has occurred is referred to as its elasticity. Vulcanized rubber, for
instance, is said to be very elastic, as it will revert back to its original shape after
considerable compressive force has been applied.

Once a certain force or stress threshold has been achieved, permanent or plastic
deformation will occur and is shown on graphs as the point where linear behavior
stops. This threshold is known as the proportional limit and the force at which the
material begins exhibiting this behavior is called the yield point or yield strength. A
specimen will then exhibit one of two types of behavior; it will either continue to
deform until it eventually breaks, or it will distort until flat. In either case, maximum
stress or force will be evident, providing its ultimate compressive strength value.

Each of these parameters offers useful information relating to the physical

characteristics of the material in question. Some materials, such as a PET bottle,
distort during a compression test and are measured by the degree of distortion,
whereas other materials such as ceramics fracture, produce a definitive compressive
strength value.

Applications of Compression Testing

Compression testing is used to guarantee the quality of components, materials, and

finished products within a wide range of industries. Typical applications of
compression testing are highlighted in the following sections on:

 Aerospace and Automotive Industry

 Construction Industry
 Cosmetics Industry
 Electrical and Electronics Industry
 Medical Device Industry
 Packaging Industry
 Paper and Board Industry
 Plastics, Rubber and Elastomers Industry
 Safety, Health, Fitness and Leisure Industry
Overview of Wood Material

Wood, the principal strengthening and nutrient-conducting tissue of trees and other
plants and one of the most abundant and versatile natural materials. Produced by
many botanical species, including both gymnosperms and angiosperms, wood is
available in various colours and grain patterns. It is strong in relation to its weight, is
insulating to heat and electricity, and has desirable acoustic properties. Furthermore,
it imparts a feeling of “warmth” not possessed by competing materials such as
metals or stone, and it is relatively easily worked. As a material, wood has been in
service since humans appeared on Earth. Today, in spite of technological
advancement and competition from metals, plastics, cement, and other materials,
wood maintains a place in most of its traditional roles, and its serviceability is
expanding through new uses. In addition to well-known products such as lumber,
furniture, and plywood, wood is the raw material for wood-based
panels, pulp and paper, and many chemical products. Finally, wood is still an
important fuel in much of the world (Britannica, Tsuomis, G.T., updated on 2024 July
30).

Overview of Metal Materials

Metal, any of a class of substances characterized by high electrical and thermal

conductivity as well as by malleability, ductility, and high reflectivity of light.

Approximately three-quarters of all known chemical elements are metals. The most
abundant varieties in the Earth’s crust
are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. The vast majority
of metals are found in ores (mineral-bearing substances), but a few such
as copper, gold, platinum, and silver frequently occur in the free state because they
do not readily react with other elements.

Metals are usually crystalline solids. In most cases, they have a relatively
simple crystal structure distinguished by a close packing of atoms and a high degree
of symmetry. Typically, the atoms of metals contain less than half the full
complement of electrons in their outermost shell. Because of this characteristic,
metals tend not to form compounds with each other. They do, however, combine
more readily with nonmetals (e.g., oxygen and sulfur), which generally have more
than half the maximum number of valence electrons. Metals differ widely in their
chemical reactivity. The most reactive include lithium, potassium, and radium,
whereas those of low reactivity are gold, silver, palladium, and platinum.

The high electrical and thermal conductivities of the simple metals (i.e., the non-
transition metals of the periodic table) are best explained by reference to the free-
electron theory. According to this concept, the individual atoms in such metals have
lost their valence electrons to the entire solid, and these free electrons that give rise
to conductivity move as a group throughout the solid. In the case of the more
complex metals (i.e., the transition elements), conductivities are better explained by
the band theory, which takes into account not only the presence of free electrons but
also their interaction with so-called d electrons.

The mechanical properties of metals, such as hardness, ability to resist repeated

stressing (fatigue strength), ductility, and malleability, are often attributed to defects
or imperfections in their crystal structure. The absence of a layer of atoms in its
densely packed structure, for example, enables a metal to deform plastically, and
prevents it from being brittle Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2024, May 1).
Insights
Tensile and compressive strength varies depending on the material properties and
structures, every material has a tensile/compressive stress, that, if the load exceeds
the limit, then the material may undergo deformation, or fracture as discussed above.
Testing of the limit of these varying materials can give us the data in assigning the
most efficient way to use it, and how to include it into our designs.

Hypothesis

The tensile strength of metals in an axial load are, specifically re-bars, high in the
sense that even though their physical properties are not visually convincing. One the
other hand, their compressive strength is weaker.

Wood has properties, depending on their orientation, structures, shape, size, and
maturity, that make them hard and have high tensile and compressive strength.
 Material Science and Engineering Materials for ME
Experiment No. 1

Justine T. Guimbungan 09/17/24

Tenstile Testing of Rebar (C/16 mm/2)

Materials

Sample:

 Not Welded Rebar (Corrugated 16 mm x 431.8 mm)

 Welded Rebar (Corrugated 16 mm x 431.8 mm)

Testing Equipment:

Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

Procedure

1. Organizing. List, measure, and ensure all of the materials needed. Clean the
surrounding area, wear PPE’s.
2. Calibration. Set up and calibrate the UTM and ensure that all functions are ready
and available.
3. Set up specimen for Tensile Test. Clamp in the rebar with a freedom on both
ends of the clamp of 1/2-1 in.
4. Start the machine. Press the test start button in the computer display to start the
test.
5. Record. Take all the data that are needed in the experiment for discussion.
These includes the computer data, the property and physical changes of the
specimen, and so on.

Observations/Result

The experiment did not go as planned due to a computer problem, which was, it
could not display any numerical data even after that test start button was clicked and
the machine was in operation. The tensile test continued until fracture has occurred
on the specimen. The same also happened to the welded corrugated rebar.
Therefore, as per suggestion, the collection and discussion of data is limited to the
following; the mechanical properties of the specimen, elongation of the specimen,
necking, and proving which strength of the specimen is stronger whether tensile or
compression.

The tensile testing of the welded and not welded corrugated started in the initial
measuring of their dimensions:

The left side is the not welded rebar while the other one is welded. Both are 17
inches long (431.8 mm) and has nominal diameter of 16 mm.

The testing started on the not welded rebar and the finished on the fracturing of the
material. The fracture occurred almost at the center of the rebar, the specimen
elongated and necking happened. Also, as tensile load was applied, the material
heated up and become slightly magnetic after fracturing.
After this, the welded rebar is tested. Half the side of the steel bar is welded while on
the other side it is not with respect to the diameter. The test proceeded with same
procedure as the not welded rebar and it ended fracturing earlier as compared to the
rebar that is not welded. The welded rebar fractured near at the side of weld and no
necking is seen unlike the other side which elongated slighty before fracturing. The
welded rebar also heated up and slight magnetic properties occurred at the area of
fracture.

The elongation of both the rebars go from 17 inches to 20

9
inches for the not welded and 17 inches to 18 welded
16
rebar.

Using the fornula ϵ=δL/L, we get:

ϵ= 20/17 = 1.17647,
elongation at break, 20-17= 3/17(100)= 17.647%
9
ϵ= 18 /17 = 1.09191
16
9
elongation at break, 18 -17= 1.5625/17(100)= 9.191%
16
The calculation shows that the non welded rebar elongated from a ratio o 1:1
to 1:1.17647 and the welded rebar to 1:1.09191.

For more specifications, the researchers measure its dimensions in their

fractured state using a vernier caliper (150mm) for precision.

The not welded rebar

elongated near at the
center measuring from the
bottom 112.5 with scaling
12.75 of 1:2 so 112.25*2 = 224.5
12 mm while the elongation is
508.3 mm. So 508.3-
224.5= 283.5 mm for the
othr half. The necking
differs in length and width
for each half.

For the welded rebar, the fracture occurred at 127.15 mm from the top of the bar to
where where the weld is located. The max weld length measurement is 18.5 mm
while the other one is 8.15 mm. The necking only occurred at the other side of the
bar which resulted 10.3 mm elongation and a necking measurement of 13.5 at the
fracture point.
Stress-strain Diagram

ε
9
17” 18 “ 20”
16
Not welded rebar
Welded Rebar

This is a thought diagram of the test due to the computer problem stated above.

The diagram shows the difference of the tensile strength between the two types of
sample. The not welded rebar shows how high the stress needed to pull it before
reaching the proportional and elastic limit to the point of fracture at 20 inches of
elongation. The welded rebar shows a lower needed stress as compared to the other
specimen, while, it still have an elongation, it is much clearly lower to the not welded
rebar.

Discussion

Necking & the Ultimate Tensile Strength

Fracture During Tensile Testing

With a brittle material, tensile testing often gives an approximately linear stress-strain
plot, followed by fracture (at a stress affected by the presence and size of flaws).
However, most metals do not behave like this and are likely to experience considerable
plastic deformation before they fail. Initially, this is likely to be uniform throughout the
gauge length. Eventually, of course, it will fail (fracture). However, in most cases, failure
will be preceded by at least some necking.
The formation of a neck is a type of instability, the formation of which is closely tied in
with work hardening. Once a neck starts to form, the (true) stress there will be higher
than elsewhere, possibly leading to more straining there, further reducing the local
sectional area and accelerating the effect.

Necking and Work Hardening

In the complete absence of work hardening, the sample will be very susceptible to this
effect and will be prone to necking from an early stage. Work hardening, however, acts
to suppress necking, since any local region experiencing higher strain will move up the
stress-strain curve and require a higher local stress in order for straining to continue
there. Generally, this is sufficient to ensure uniform straining and suppress early
necking. However, since the work hardening rate often falls off with increasing strain,
this balance is likely to shift and eventually render the sample vulnerable to necking.
Furthermore, some materials (with high yield stress and low work hardening rate) may
indeed be susceptible to necking from the very start.

The Considère Construction

This situation was analysed originally by Armand Considère (1885), in the context of the
stability of large scale structures. Instability (onset of necking) is expected when an
increase in the (local) strain produces no net increase in the load, F. This happens when

This leads to

Necking is thus predicted to start when the slope of the true stress / true strain curve falls
to a value equal to the true stress at that point (Fig.1).
 Fig.1: Considère’s construction (basic construction)

This condition is commonly expressed in terms of the nominal strain.

The condition can therefore also be formulated in terms of a plot of true stress against
nominal strain. On such a plot (Fig.2), necking will start where a line from the
point eN = -1 forms a tangent to the curve.

Fig.2: Considère’s construction, based on a true stress-nominal strain plot

Necking starts when the plot of nominal stress against nominal strain reaches a
maximum (plateau) – see Fig.3.
This is not always easy to identify in terms of the strain at which it occurs, since it is
commonly a rather flat plateau, but the stress level is usually fairly well defined. In fact,
this stress level is often regarded as important, and is commonly termed the ultimate
tensile strength (UTS). It should be understood that this value is not actually the true
stress acting at failure. This is difficult to obtain in a simple way, since, once necking has
started, the (changing) sectional area is unknown.

Also, the “ductility”, often taken to be the nominal strain at failure (usually well beyond the
strain at the onset of necking) does not correspond to the true strain in the neck when
fracture occurs. UTS and ductility values therefore provide only rather loose indications
of the strength and toughness of the material. Nevertheless, they are quite widely
quoted. In fact, provided the plasticity characteristics of the metal have been established
(in the form of a true stress v. true strain relationship), it is possible to obtain the point at
which necking will start, simply by converting true to nominal values and identifying the
peak of this curve.

This gives the UTS and also the strain at the onset of necking. It’s not possible to predict
the curve for the regime in which the neck develops and fails, but this is in any event
fairly meaningless (and depends on the gauge length).

Fig.3: Photos taken during a tensile test, and corresponding points

on the (nominal) stress-strain curve
 Ref.: Platometrex. (2021, February 18). Necking and ultimate tensile strength. With a
brittle material, tensile testing often gives an approximately linear stress-strain plot.
Retrieved on September 17, 2024 at https://plastometrex.com/blogs/necking-and-the-
ultimate-tensile-strength

Mechanical Properties of Steel Bar

The reference is taken from Matweb.com which incorporated diverse materials from
different sources and show their material properties, link of reference:
https://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?
MatGUID=d1844977c5c8440cb9a3a967f8909c3a

Material: ASTM A36 Steel, bar

Notes: Steel for general structural purposes including bridges and buildings.

Mechanical Properties Metric English Comments

Tensile Strength, Ultimate 400 - 550 MPa 58000 - 79800 psi
Tensile Strength, Yield 250 MPa 36300 psi
Elongation at Break 20 % 20 % in 200 mm
23 % 23 % In 50 mm.
Modulus of Elasticity 200 GPa 29000 ksi
Compressive Yield Strength 152 MPa 22000 psi Allowable compressive strength
Bulk Modulus 160 GPa 23200 ksi Typical for steel
Poissons Ratio 0.26 0.26
Shear Modulus 79.3 GPa 11500 ksi

Question

What strength of the steel bar is more stronger, tensile or compressive strength?
- Tensile
As we can see from the reference, the yield tensile strength has a value of 250 MPa
while the yield compressive strength 152 MPa. The ultimate tensile strength has a
value ranging from 400-550 MPa.

In a thought reasoning, rebars are usually used as reinforcements, tension is always

at the bottom when used in building beam structures, while the compressive strength
(in the case of concrete column reinforcement) have stirrups as to support the
column. Both have stirrups in them but the beam structures that are horizontally
placed are carrying more loads than the column.

But according to Kumar A. (2023, September 03), Columns are generally less ductile
than beams. By making the columns stronger than the beams, the intention is to
ensure that, in the event of an earthquake, the beams will deform and yield before
the columns. This controlled yielding of beams helps dissipate energy and protect
the columns from severe damage. So the way the rebar reinforcements are place in
stuctural buildings have their own uses.

Overall, tensile strength in rebars are stronger than their compressive strength in
proportion to their properties, structure, size and shape.

Conclusion

Rebars are used generally for supporting weak tensile-strengthened structures in

order to produce better ductility and of the object. They can also be used for
supporting small scale structures such and a tank stands, and others. The outcome
of the experiment does not satisfy the objective due to errors in the equipment that
resulted in the lack of primary data to be used for calculating the Tensile Strength
(Yield, Ultimate) and the ductility of the material.

Recommendations

The researchers suggest that the next inquirers of the tensile strength of rebar to test
the machine functionality earlier rather than testing it on the same day of the
experiment in order that the error may again occur. Also, the researchers should
properly & individually measure and record the specimen/materials so that the data
is easily accessible to each and everyone.