MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

MODULE 2
SOLAR ENERGY

SYLLABUS
Solar Energy: Introduction to photovoltaic (PV) systems - Principle of PV conversion;
Commercial solar cell, Thin film PV device fabrication - LPCVD, APCVD, PECVD;
Tandem Solar cell fabrication; Solar power extraction using PV-Cells, I-V Characteristics,
PV-Inverters without D.C. to D.C. converters, stand alone and grid collected PV systems,
Grid interfacing-with isolation, without isolation, Maximum power point tracking-
Methods(MPPT), PV-Inverters with D.C. to D.C. converters-on low frequency side and
high frequency side with isolation, without isolation.

PHOTOVOLATAIC (PV) SYSTEMS

 A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric
power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics.

 It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to

absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to convert the
output from direct to alternating current, as well as mounting, cabling, and other
electrical accessories to set up a working system.
 It may also use a solar tracking system to improve the system's overall
performance and include an integrated battery.
 The process of converting light (photons) to electricity (voltage) is called the solar
photovoltaic (PV) effect. Photovoltaic solar cells convert sunlight directly into
solar power (electricity). They use thin layers of semi-conducting material that is
charged differently between the top and bottom layers. The semi-conducting
material can be encased between a sheet of glass and/or a polymer resin
 PV systems can be categorized by various aspects, such as, grid-connected vs.
stand alone systems, building-integrated vs. rack-mounted systems, residential vs.
utility systems, distributed vs. centralized systems, rooftop vs. ground-mounted
systems, tracking vs. fixed-tilt systems, and new constructed vs. retrofitted
systems. Other distinctions may include, systems with microinverters vs. central
inverter, systems using crystalline silicon vs. thin-film technology, and systems
with modules.

Principle of PV conversion
The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric
current in a photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to sunlight. It is this effect that makes
solar panels useful, as it is how the cells within the panel convert sunlight to electrical
energy. The photovoltaic effect was first discovered in 1839 by Edmond Becquerel.
The photovoltaic effect occurs in solar cells. These solar cells are composed of two
different types of semiconductors - a p-type and an n-type - that are joined together to
create a p-n junction.
By joining these two types of semiconductors, an electric field is formed in the region of
the junction as electrons move to the positive p-side and holes move to the negative n-
side. This field causes negatively charged particles to move in one direction and
positively charged particles in the other direction.
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Light is composed of photons, which are simply small bundles of electromagnetic

radiation or energy. These photons can be absorbed by a photovoltaic cell - the type of
cell that composes solar panels.When light of a suitable wavelength is incident on these
cells, energy from the photon is transferred to an atom of the semiconducting material in
the p-n junction. Specifically, the energy is transferred to the electrons in the material.
This causes the electrons to jump to a higher energy state known as the conduction band.
This leaves behind a "hole" in the valence band that the electron jumped up from. This
movement of the electron as a result of added energy creates two charge carriers, an
electron-hole pair.
When unexcited, electrons hold the semiconducting material together by forming bonds
with surrounding atoms, and thus they cannot move. However in their excited state in the
conduction band, these electrons are free to move through the material. Because of the
electric field that exists as a result of the p-n junction, electrons and holes move in the
opposite direction as expected. Instead of being attracted to the p-side, the freed electron
tends to move to the n-side. This motion of the electron creates an electric current in the
cell. Once the electron moves, there's a "hole" that is left. This hole can also move, but in
the opposite direction to the p-side. It is this process which creates a current in the cell. A
diagram of this process can be seen in Figure

Construction and working of Photovoltaic Cell

● Two separate semiconductors are sandwiched together forming a p-n junction at the interface.
○ Both materials are electrically neutral, n-type has excess electrons and p-type silicon has
excess holes.
● The device is constructed in such a way that when the junction is exposed to visible light, a voltage
difference is produced between the p-type and n-type materials.
○ Due to the flow of excess electrons from the n-type material to the p-type material, and the
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holes thereby vacated from p-type material flow towards n-type material.
● Due to these electrons and hole flow, the two semiconductors act as a battery creating an electric
field at the junction.
● Electrodes connected to the semiconductor layer, allow current to be drawn from the device which
is proportional to the intensity of incident light
Advantages of Photovoltaic Cells
1. The photovoltaic cell does not require any external battery for its own operation, i.e. it is self-
generating.
2. Since solar energy is unlimited, once the photovoltaic system is installed, it can produce energy
years together.
3. The maintenance cost is minimum.
4. It is non-polluting.

Commercial solar cell

Commercial solar panels (cells) are an array of multiple photovoltaic (PV) solar panels
that convert sunlight into electricity. Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels comprise of solar
cells made from silicon that is constructed with a positive layer and a negative layer,
which together create an electric field. Multiple cells make up a solar panel, and
multiple panels or modules can be wired together to form a solar array. Commercial
solar panels employ a large number of solar arrays to generate more electricitty.
These can be installed on the top of buildings and generate enough energy to meet the
building’s power needs. Commercial solar panels are sources of clean and renewable energy
that require very little maintenance and has no carbon emissions which has become a global
concern.

Structure of a commercial solar cell

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1.Transparent Protective Layer (Cover Glass)

Function: Protects the solar cell from environmental damage like dust, water, and mechanical impact
2. Anti-Reflective Coating (ARC)
Function: Reduces reflection of sunlight, ensuring more light enters the cell for conversion.
3.Top Contact (Metal Grid)
Function: Collects and conducts electrons generated in the cell while allowing sunlight to pass through.
4.n-Type Silicon Layer
Function: Electron-rich layer created by doping silicon with phosphorus. Helps facilitate electron flow.
5.p-n Junction
Function: The region where the n-type and p-type silicon layers meet. It creates an electric field that
separates electron-hole pairs generated by sunlight.
6.p-Type Silicon Layer
Function: Hole-rich layer created by doping silicon with boron. Complements the n-type layer to form the
p-n junction
7.Back Contact
Function: Collects electrons and completes the circuit, allowing the current to flow

Solar system components

● In addition to the solar panels, there are other important components of a photovoltaic
system which are commonly referred to as the "balance of system" or BOS.
BOS components (which typically account for over half of the system cost and most the of
maintenance) can include inverters, racking, wiring, combiners, disconnects, circuit breakers
and electric meters.
Inverters
● An inverter is an electrical device which accepts electrical current in the form of direct
current (DC) and converts it to alternating current (AC).
● For solar energy systems, this means the DC current from the solar array is fed through
an inverter which converts it to AC.
● This conversion is necessary to operate most electric devices or interface with the
electrical grid.
● Inverters are important for almost all solar energy systems and are typically the most
expensive component after the solar panels themselves.
Most inverters have conversion efficiencies of 90% or higher
Racking
● Racking refers to the mounting apparatus which fixes the solar array to the ground or
rooftop.
● Typically constructed from steel or aluminum, these apparatuses mechanically fix the
solar panels in place with a high level of precision.

Other Components
● The remaining components of a typical solar PV system include combiners,
disconnects, breakers, meters and wiring.
● A solar combiner, combines two or more electrical cables into one larger one.
○ Combiners typically include fuses for protection and are used on all medium to
large and utility-scale solar arrays.
● Disconnects are electrical gates or switches which allow for manual disconnection of an
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electrical wire.
Used on either side of an inverter, namely the "DC disconnect" and "AC disconnect" these
devices provide electrical isolation when an inverter needs to be installed or replaced
● Circuit breakers or breakers protect electrical systems from over current or surges.
○ Designed to trigger automatically when the current reaches a predetermined
amount, breakers can also be operated manually, acting as an additional
disconnect.
● An Electric meter measures the amount of energy that passes through it and is
commonly used by electric utility companies to measure and charge customers.
○ For solar PV systems, a special bi-directional electric meter is used to measure
both the incoming energy from the utility, and the outgoing energy from the solar
PV system.
● Finally, the wiring or electrical cables transport the electrical energy from and between
each component and must be properly sized to carry the current.
○ Wiring exposed to sunlight must have protection against UV exposure, and wires
carrying DC current sometimes require metal sheathing for added protection.
● To store electricity from PV's, batteries will be needed.
○ The batteries used for PV systems are different from car batteries. The batteries
best suited for use with PV systems are called secondary or deep cycle batteries.
○ There are two types of deep cycle batteries: lead acid batteries, which require the
periodic addition of water, and captive electrolyte (gelcell) batteries, which are
maintenance free.

The semiconductor material in commercial PV cells can be:

(a) single crystalline silicon,

(b) polycrystalline silicon

(c) thin-film, photovoltaic cell/module made from layers of semiconductor

material, such as amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride (CdTe), or copper
indium gallium selenide (CIGS).

1.Crystalline Silicon PV Cells

● Of the different types of silicon photovoltaic cells, those made from wafers of silicon single crystals
are most efficient at producing electricity.
● A single crystal of a material is simply a large molecule.
● The molecular orbitals extend over the entire crystal so it is very easy for electrons to travel through
it.
● The single crystal wafers used in these these cells are byproducts of the computer industry.
● Excess silicon from the production of computer chips can be used in PV cells.

2.Polycrystalline Silicon PV Cells

● Polycrystalline silicon contains multiple crystals with grain boundaries between them.
● Electrons can travel through the conduction band of a single crystal by there is a small barrier to
electron flow through the boundary between one crystal and the next.
This decreases the electrical conductivity
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3.Thin film solar cell

● Thin-film solar cell, type of device that is designed to convert light energy into electrical energy
(through the photovoltaic effect) and is composed of micron-thick photon-absorbing material layers
deposited over a flexible substrate.
● Thin-film solar cells were originally introduced in the 1970s by researchers at the Institute of
Energy Conversion at the University of Delaware in the United States.
● The technology continuously improved so that in the early 21st century the global thin-film
photovoltaic market was growing at an unprecedented rate and was forecast to continue to grow.
● Several types of thin-film solar cells are widely used because of their relatively low cost and their
efficiency in producing electricity.

● The thickness of the film thickness has variances from a few nanometers (nm) to tens of
micrometers (µm).
● Thin-film solar cells are way thinner than the other contemporary technology, the conventional,
first-generation crystalline silicon solar cell (c-Si).
○ Crystalline silicon solar cells have wafers of up to 200 µm thick.
● Compared with the crystalline cells, thin-films are more flexible and lighter in weight.
● These are used in developing integrated photovoltaics and as semi-transparent, photovoltaic
material that is possible to laminate and use in windows.
● Rigid thin-film cells have other commercial applications (inserting or interleaving between two
panes of glass) in some of the largest photovoltaic power stations in the world.

Features

● The installation process of thin-film solar panels is way easier and takes less effort than the
conventional silicon panels.
● Thin-film solar panels are lightweight and flexible, and thus can be applied in the areas where
traditional solar panels cannot be installed.
● These solar cells contain a significantly lesser quantity of silicon, and therefore emissions during
their production are also quite low as compared to the production of standard solar panels.

Applications
● Implementation of thin-film solar panels needs a larger area. These modules can be installed in
commercial/institutional buildings, forest areas, streets, and in large rooftops/open spaces.
● Thin-film solar panels are suitable for use in solar farms.
● These solar panels can also be used in street lights and traffic.
● It is possible to install these solar panels on the rooftop of buses/RVs to power small appliances,
fans, Wi-Fi modems, and others. The solar cells can also help in maintaining the temperature of a
bus.
● Installation of thin-film solar panels can be carried out in large-sized steel water tanks to provide
electricity for pumping water.

Types of Thin-film Solar cells

There are four types of thin-film solar cells:

● Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
● Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
● Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS)
● Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
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Thin film deposition methods

Two main deposition methods are used today:
● Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) (no chemical reaction involved)
○ Vapors of constituent materials created inside the chamber, and condensation occurs on wafer
surface leading to the deposition of a solid film.
○ E.g. evaporation, sputter deposition, most commonly used for metals.
● Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
○ Reactant gases introduced in the chamber, chemical reactions occur on wafer surface leading to
the deposition of a solid film.
○ E.g. APCVD, LPCVD, PECVD, most commonly used for dielectrics and Si.
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CVD steps:

• Introduce reactive gases to the chamber.

• Activate gases (decomposition) by heat or plasma.

• Gas absorption by substrate surface .

• Reaction take place on substrate surface, film firmed.

• Transport of volatile byproducts away form substrate.

• Exhaust waste.

CVD advantages and disadvantages(as compared to physical vapor deposition)

Advantages:

• High growth rates possible, good reproducibility.

• Can deposit materials which are hard to evaporate.

• Can grow epitaxial films. In this case also termed as “vapor phase epitaxy
(VPE)”. For instance, MOCVD (metal-organic CVD) is also called OMVPE
(organo-metallic VPE).

• Generally better film quality, more conformal step coverage (see image below).

Disadvantages:

• High process temperatures.

• Complex processes, toxic and corrosive gasses.

• Film may not be pure (hydrogen incorporation…).

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Types of CVD

1. APCVD (Atmospheric Pressure CVD), mass transport limited growth rate, leading
to non-uniform film thickness.

2. LPCVD (Low Pressure CVD)

• Low deposition rate limited by surface reaction, so uniform film thickness

(many wafers stacked vertically facing each other; in APCVD, wafers have to be
laid horizontally side by side.

• Gas pressures around 1-1000mTorr (lower P => higher diffusivity of gas to substrate)

• Better film uniformity & step coverage and fewer defects

• Process temperature 500°C

3. PECVD (Plasma Enhanced CVD)

• Plasma helps to break up gas molecules: high reactivity, able to process at

lower temperature and lower pressure (good for electronics on plastics).

• Pressure higher than in sputter deposition: more collision in gas phase, less
ion bombardment on substrate

• Can run in RF plasma mode: avoid charge buildup for insulators

• Film quality is poorer than LPCVD.

• Process temperature around 100 - 400°C.

4. MOCVD (Metal-organic CVD, also called OMVPE - organo metallic VPE),

epitaxial growth for many optoelectronic devices with III-V compounds for solar
cells, lasers, LEDs, photo-cathodes and quantum wells.
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Low Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (LPCVD)

Atmospheric pressure systems (APCVD) have major drawbacks:
• At high T, a horizontal configuration must be used (few wafers at a time).
• At low T, the deposition rate goes down and throughput is again low.
The fundamental reason (I think) for the low throughput of APCVD is that only a small
percentage of the gas is reactant gases, with the rest carrier/diluent gas.
Obviously, the solution is to operate at low pressure – LPCVD

•
LPCVD reactors use: P = 0.25 – 2.0Torr, T = 500 – 900°C.
• Transport of reactants from gas phase to surface through boundary layer is still
not rate limiting (despite the high T), so wafers can be stacked vertically for high
throughput (100-200 wafers per run).
• Because LPCVD operates in reaction limited regime, it is VERY sensitive to
temperature and so temperature needs to be controlled closely (within +/- 1oC), so
use hot walled reactor for this precise control.
• Again, a 5-25oC temperature gradient is often created to offset source gas
depletion effects (or one can use distributed feeding).
• Requires no carrier gas, and low gas pressure reduces gas-phase reaction which
causes particle cluster that contaminants the wafer and system.
• Less auto-doping (at lower P), as out-diffused dopant gas pumped away quickly.
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Possible disadvantages:

• For too low temperature, deposition rates may be too low, film quality decreases.
• Shadowing (less gas-phase collisions) due to directional diffusion to the surface,
so deterioration of the step coverage and filling.

Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD)

“Good” quality films (though generally not as good as LP or APCVD films deposited at
much higher T): energy supplied by plasma (i.e. ion bombardment of film) increases film
density, composition, and step coverage.
• Use RF-induced plasma to transfer energy into the reactant gases, forming
radicals that is very reactive. (RF: radio-frequency, typically 13.56MHz for
PECVD)
• Low temperature process (<300oC), as thermal energy is less critical when RF
energy exists.
• Used for depositing film on metals (Al…) and other materials that cannot sustain
high temperatures. (APCVD/LPCVD at such low temperatures gives increased
porosity and poor step coverage)
• Surface reaction limited deposition, thus substrate temperature control is
important to ensure uniformity.
• At low T, surface diffusion is slow, so one must supply kinetic energy for surface
diffusion – plasma (ion bombardment) provides that energy and enhances step
coverage.
• Disadvantages: plasma damage, not pure film (often lots of H incorporated into film).

PECVD process parameter

 Substrate temperature (100-300oC, up to 1000oC PECVD available)

• Control by external heater, very little heating from PECVD process
 Gas flow (10s to 100s sccm – standard cubic centimeter per minute)
• Higher flow rates can increase deposition rate and uniformity
 Pressure (P  50mTorr – 5Torr )
• Changes the energy of ions reaching electrodes
• Can change deposition rate
• Increases pressure may lead to chemical reactions in the gas
• Effects also depend on gas concentration
•
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 Power (10s to 100s watts)

• Affects the number of electrons available for activation and the
energy of those electrons
• Increased power may lead to chemical reactions in gas
• Increased power increases deposition rate
 Frequency (mostly 13.56MHz, same for plasma etching and sputter deposition)
• Changes plasma characteristics
• Changes ion bombardment characteristics

TANDEM SOLAR CELL FABRICATION

● One method to increase the efficiency of a solar cell is to split the spectrum and use a solar cell that
is optimised to each section of the spectrum.

● Tandem solar cells can either be individual cells or connected in series.

● Series connected cells are simpler to fabricate but the current is the same though each cell so this
contains the band gaps that can be used.

● Tandem cells are effectively a stack of different solar cells on top of each other.

● By arranging them like this, we can capture more energy from the sun.

● A solar cell is designed to work really well when it absorbs blue light, we could put it next to one
that absorbs green light well and one that absorbs red light well so that we can capture more energy
from the sun.

● The most common arrangement for tandem cells is to grow them monolithically so that all the cells
are grown as layers on substrate and tunnel junctions connect the individual cells.

● There is a limit to the maximum efficiency that some types of solar cells, known as “single-junction
cells” (e.g. silicon), can ever reach called the “Shockley-Queisser limit”.

● If we look closely at sunlight, we can see that it is made up of photons (particles of light) that have
a range of wavelengths, and therefore a range of energies.
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● This is why we sometimes see rainbows when it rains; the water splits up the sunlight into it’s
different colours, and each colour has a different wavelength.

● Tandem cells are stacks of p-n junctions, each of which is formed from a semiconductor of different
bandgap energy

● As the number of bandgaps increases the efficiency of the stack also potentially increases.

● In reality, the semiconductor materials do not exist to allow for arbitrary materials with a specific
bandgap and of high quality.

● A tandem solar panel consists of 2 solar cells on top of each other.

● In this case the top cell is made of perovskite.

● This cell converts part of the solar spectrum into electricity and transmits the infrared light to the
bottom silicon solar cell.

● The silicon bottom cell is of the bifacial type, which means that it also converts the diffuse light that
falls on the rear side of the panel to electricity.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic

● The Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves shows the current and voltage (I-V) characteristics of a
particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array.

● It gives a detailed description of its solar energy conversion ability and efficiency.

● Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more importantly P max) of a solar cell, or panel is critical
in determining the device’s output performance and solar efficiency.

The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in the relationship between the
current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-V characteristics curve
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● The intensity of the solar radiation (insolation) that hits the cell controls the current ( I ), while the
increases in the temperature of the solar cell reduces its voltage ( V ).

● Solar cells produce direct current ( DC ) electricity and current times voltage equals power, so we
can create solar cell I-V curves representing the current versus the voltage for a photovoltaic device.

● Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the operation of a
solar cell or module summarising the relationship between the current and voltage at the existing
conditions of irradiance and temperature.

● I-V curves provide the information required to configure a solar system so that it can operate as
close to its optimal peak power point (MPP) as possible.

IV Curve

The IV curve of a solar cell is the superposition of the IV curve of the solar cell diode in
the dark with the light-generated current.1 The light has the effect of shifting the IV
curve down into the fourth quadrant where power can be extracted from the diode.
Illuminating a cell adds to the normal "dark" currents in the diode so that the diode law
becomes

where IL = light generated current.

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Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

● With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at its
minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open
circuit voltage, or Voc.
● At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and negative leads
connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current flowing out
of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit current, or Isc.
● Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit current ( Isc )
at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage ( Voc ).
● In other words, the maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum
current at closed circuit.
● Neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power, but there must be a point
somewhere in between were the solar cell generates maximum power.
● However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power reaches its
maximum value, at Imp and Vmp.
● The point at which the cell generates maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right
area of the green rectangle.
● This is the “maximum power point” or MPP. Therefore, the ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell
(or panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.
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Electrical characteristics of solar cells

● Open-Circuit Voltage (VOC)

● Short-Circuit Current(ISC)
● Maximum Power Point
● Fill Factor
1.Open-Circuit Voltage
● The maximum voltage a solar cell can produce when no current flows through it (i.e., the circuit is
open).
● It occurs when the load is disconnected, and the cell is exposed to sunlight.
● VOC depends on the semiconductor material, the temperature, and the intensity of sunlight
For silicon-based solar cells, VOC ranges between 0.5V and 0.7V
2. Short-Circuit Current
● The maximum current generated by a solar cell when the terminals are shorted (i.e., zero resistance
or voltage across the cell).
● It is proportional to the amount of sunlight incident on the solar cell.
● It represents the photo-generated current due to the light-induced electron-hole pairs
● Values depend on the cell size and efficiency, often measured in milliamperes (mA) for small cells
or amperes (A) for larger cells
3.Maximum Power Point
● The point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve of a solar cell where the product of current (I) and
voltage (V) is maximum
● Represents the maximum electrical power output the solar cell can deliver under standard
conditions
● This point is used to calculate the efficiency and optimal operation of the cell .
5. FILL FACTOR
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Different types of solar PV systems

● Stand alone solar PV system

● Grid connected solar PV system
● Hybrid PV system

Stand alone solar PV system

● A stand-alone solar PV system operates independently of the utility grid. It is designed to generate
and store electricity for use when sunlight is not available.
● Key Features:
● Requires a battery for energy storage.
● Provides power to isolated or remote locations.
● Includes components like solar panels, charge controllers, batteries, and inverters.
● Applications:
● Remote homes, cabins, and villages.
● Street lighting.
● Water pumping systems.
● Off-grid telecommunications.
Grid-Connected Solar PV System

● A grid-connected solar PV system works in conjunction with the utility grid. It supplies power to
the load and feeds excess electricity back to the grid.
● Key Features:
● No battery required (though hybrid systems may include batteries).
● Excess energy can be exported to the grid (net metering).
● Relies on the grid for backup when solar power is insufficient.
● Applications:
● Residential rooftop systems.
● Commercial and industrial solar installations.
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● Utility-scale solar farms.

STRUCTURES OF PV INVERTERS
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DC TO DC CONVERTER
● DC-to-DC converters are essential components in solar photovoltaic (PV) systems.
● They are used to optimize the performance of solar panels and ensure efficient power delivery to the load or
storage system.
● These converters adjust the output voltage and current levels to meet system requirements while maximizing
power extraction from the solar panels.

ROLE OF DC TO DC CONVERTER IN SOLAR PV SYSTEM

● 1.Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT):
Solar cells operate at a specific point, called the Maximum Power Point (MPP), to deliver maximum
power. DC-to-DC converters implement MPPT algorithms to dynamically adjust the voltage and current to keep the
system at the MPP, regardless of changes in sunlight or temperature.
2. Voltage Regulation:
Solar panel output voltage varies with sunlight intensity and temperature. DC-to-DC converters stabilize the
output voltage to meet the requirements of the load or battery.
Types of DC-to-DC Converters in Solar Systems
1. Buck Converter (Step-Down Converter):
Reduces the voltage from the solar panel to a lower level. Useful when the load or battery requires a voltage
lower than the solar panel's output.
2. Boost Converter (Step-Up Converter):
Increases the voltage from the solar panel to a higher level.
Used when the panel’s voltage is lower than the required system voltage.
Advantages of DC-to-DC Converters in Solar Applications
● Improved energy harvesting efficiency.
● Enhanced system reliability and lifespan.
● Flexibility in system design.
adaptability to varying environmental conditions.

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING(MPPT)

● MPPT is a technique used in solar PV systems to maximize power output by ensuring the solar panels
operate at their optimal power point.
● The power output of a solar panel depends on its current-voltage (I-V) characteristics, which vary with
environmental conditions such as sunlight intensity and temperature.
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● MPPT dynamically adjusts the operating point to extract the maximum possible power.
● The point on the I-V curve of the solar panel where the product of current (I) and voltage (V) is maximized.
The corresponding voltage and current are VMPP and IMPP, respectively.
● The MPP changes with:
● Irradiance: Higher sunlight increases current, shifting the MPP.
● Temperature: Higher temperatures reduce voltage, shifting the MPP.
● Role of MPPT is Continuously monitors panel output and adjusts operating parameters to stay at or near the
MPP.
● MPPT algorithms adjust the duty cycle of a DC-to-DC converter (e.g., buck, boost, or buck-boost) to match
the solar panel's operating point with the load's requirements.
●
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POWER CONFIGURATION OF PV INVERTERS

ISOLATION TRANSFORMER

An isolation transformer is a critical component in some PV systems, depending on the application, safety
requirements, and regulatory standards. Its primary role is to provide galvanic isolation between the DC side (solar
panels) and the AC side (grid or load).
 MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

GRID INTERACING

● Grid interfacing of solar PV systems can be done either with isolation (using a transformer) or without
isolation (transformer less).
● Grid Interfacing with Isolation
● Grid Interfacing Without Isolation (Transformer less)

Grid Interfacing with Isolation

● This method uses a transformer (either high-frequency or low-frequency) to provide electrical isolation
between the PV system and the grid.
● Block Diagram
● Solar PV Array → DC-DC Converter → DC-AC Inverter → Isolation Transformer → Grid
● Key Features:
● Isolation: Provides galvanic isolation to separate the PV array from the grid.
● Safety: Prevents direct DC injection into the grid and reduces the risk of ground faults.
● Flexibility: Allows voltage matching between the inverter and grid (step-up or step-down as needed).

● Advantages:
● Enhanced safety and reliability.
● Eliminates leakage currents.
● Suitable for sensitive grid-tied applications.
● Challenges:
● Increased cost and weight due to the transformer.
● Reduced efficiency because of transformer losses.
● Bulky system design, especially with low-frequency transformers.

Grid Interfacing Without Isolation (Transformerless)

● This method directly connects the inverter to the grid without using a transformer.
● Block Diagram
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● Solar PV Array → DC-DC Converter (Optional) → DC-AC Inverter → Grid

● Key Features:
● No galvanic isolation; relies on advanced circuit design for protection.
● Inverter design ensures that DC injection and leakage currents are minimized.

● Advantages:
● Higher efficiency due to the absence of transformer losses.
● Lighter and more compact system design.
● Lower installation and maintenance costs.
● Challenges:
● Risk of DC injection into the grid, which can affect grid operation.
● Increased leakage currents may require advanced grounding and safety measures.
● May not be suitable for all grid standards, especially in regions with strict safety requirements.

Comparison of Grid Interfacing With and Without Isolation

PV NVERTER WITH DC TO DC CONVERTER AND ISOLATION

A PV inverter with a DC-DC converter and isolation is a robust configuration widely used in
photovoltaic systems that require galvanic isolation for safety and regulatory compliance. This type of
inverter uses a transformer to provide isolation between the PV panels (DC side) and the grid or load (AC
side).
Structure and Components
1. DC-DC Converter Stage

 Purpose:
o Converts and regulates the variable DC output from the PV array to a stable DC voltage.
o Implements Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for optimal energy extraction.
 MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Isolation Transformer

 Purpose:
o Provides galvanic isolation between the DC and AC sides.
o Enhances safety by preventing direct electrical connection.

Inverter Stage (DC-AC Conversion)

 Purpose:
o Converts the regulated DC voltage to AC power suitable for the grid or load.
o Synchronizes with grid frequency and phase in grid-tied systems.

Advantages of Isolation

1. Safety:
Protects against ground faults and electric shocks.
o
Eliminates the risk of leakage currents flowing through the system.
o
2. Regulatory Compliance:
o Meets standards in regions where galvanic isolation is mandatory.
o Prevents DC injection into the grid, protecting grid-connected equipment.
3. Mitigation of PID (Potential Induced Degradation):
o Isolation minimizes leakage currents, reducing the risk of degradation in PV modules.
4. Flexibility:
o Allows the PV system to operate with different grounding schemes for the DC and AC
sides.

Based on isolation transformer placement divided into two

1.PV NVERTER WITH DC TO DC CONVERTER AND ISOLATION on low frequency side

Isolation can be provided in the inverter stage
2.PV NVERTER WITH DC TO DC CONVERTER AND ISOLATION on high frequency side
Isolation can be provided in the DC-DC stage
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PV INVERTER DC TO DC CONVERTER AND NO ISOLLATION

A PV inverter with a DC-DC converter and no isolation is a popular configuration, especially for
modern solar systems focused on high efficiency and cost-effectiveness. These systems do not include
galvanic isolation between the DC and AC sides, making them lightweight and suitable for applications
where safety regulations do not mandate isolation.
STRUCTURE AND OPERATON
DC-DC Converter Stage
 MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

 Purpose:
o Regulates the DC voltage from the PV array.
o Implements Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) to maximize energy yield.

Inverter Stage (DC-AC Conversion)

 Purpose:
o Converts the regulated DC voltage into AC for grid or load connection.
o Synchronizes output with grid voltage and frequency (for grid-tied systems).

Key Features

1. No Galvanic Isolation:
o The DC and AC sides share a direct electrical connection, eliminating the need for a
transformer.
2. MPPT Algorithm:
o Extracts maximum power from the PV array by dynamically adjusting the operating
voltage.
3. Harmonic Filtering:
o Filters are used to reduce harmonic distortion and ensure compliance with grid standards.

Advantages

 High Efficiency:
o Absence of a transformer eliminates associated energy losses, improving overall efficiency.
 Reduced Cost:
o Avoids the expense of a transformer, making the system more cost-effective.
 Compact and Lightweight:
o No transformer reduces size and weight, which is ideal for rooftop systems.
 Lower Heat Generation:
o Fewer components result in less heat dissipation, simplifying thermal management.
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
MODULE 2 ECT 468: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES