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Edexcel International A Level Your notes
Physics
Practical Skills I: Implementation & Measurements
Contents
3.11 Number of Readings
3.12 Range of Measurements
3.13 Significant Figures
3.14 Anomalous Readings
3.15 Using a Micrometer
3.16 Evaluating Experiments
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3.11 Number of Readings
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Number of Readings
When recording data from an experiment, it is important to take a suitable number of readings
Repeat readings should also be taken where possible
An example of a table of results with an appropriate number of readings is:
Example Table of Results with a good number of readings
A good number of repeats is between 3 - 5 times
In the diagram, there are 3 repeats of each reading
Multiple measurements increase precision
It also makes your measurements more reliable
They also increase confidence in the experimental data
Making the same measurement multiple times then taking an average decreases the
uncertainty in the value
The absolute uncertainty in repeat readings is equal to ± half the range of readings
It also checks how reproducible the measurements are, so the results are not just from luck or a
fluke
Results should be recorded to the resolution of the measuring instrument which means there will
be a consistent number of decimal places for the readings for any one variable
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They should be recorded to a consistent number of significant figures, which is usually 3, as
this is what we can usually confidently plot on a graph
For example, readings for a micrometer should be to two decimal places (since its resolution Your notes
is 0.01 mm) whilst for a ruler, only 1 decimal place would be enough when measuring in cm, or 2
decimal places when measuring in metres (since its resolution 0.1 cm / 0.01 m / 1 mm)
Exam Tip
A common mistake when planning out experiment is not stating exactly how many readings you
would take. Just saying 'take readings of the voltage' is not enough. It is better to say 'take 10
readings of the voltage, between a range of 0.5 V to 5 V in steps of 10, each with three repeats
and a mean calculated'. Be as descriptive as possible to gain full marks!
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3.12 Range of Measurements
Your notes
Range of Measurements
When recording data from an experiment, it is important to take a good range of readings
This is between 5 – 10 values, with a step of 1, 2, 5 or a multiple of 10
Example table of results with a good range
In the diagram, there is a good range of 8 values between 0.25 – 2.00 m
A wide range of readings gives an idea of how well the average represents the data
When considering the range of readings, think about the limitations of the instrument used to
measure the independent variable
An example of this is the range of the measuring device:
A maximum value of the range of 5 m when using a ruler wouldn't be ideal, because a ruler is
normally 1 m long. This could become difficult to measure introducing many errors into the
readings
The smallest division on a ruler is 1 mm, therefore, the smallest reading should be greater than
this (e.g. not 0.1 mm)
Another example is the limitations of the apparatus used:
When measuring the extension of a spring, a large load is avoided in order for the spring not
to extend past its elastic limit
Too high voltages and currents could damage the circuit as it heats up, so the highest value in
the range required must be well below the limit of any components in the circuit in order for
them not to fuse or set on fire
A range of readings is important to see whether the experiment holds true for all values, or, if there
is a different pattern in results after a certain value
Imagine investing the variation of current and potential difference for a semiconductor diode
If a reading of potential difference were only taken up to a value of 0. 5 V, the graph would
look like a horiz ontal line
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If they were taken up to 3 V, the steep increase in current can be seen by an almost vertical
straight line
Had a larger range not been taken, the full pattern of the current and potential difference in the Your notes
diode wouldn't have been seen
In general, the more readings the better, and the wider range the better
However, there is only so much time set out to complete the experiment
A wider range of measurements shows a different pattern
Exam Tip
It is important that the difference between each reading in a range is equal (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4 and not 1,
2 , 5, 6 ) and that the difference between each value is 1, 2, 5 or a multiple of 10 (avoid something
like 0.3, 0.6, 0.9)
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3.13 Significant Figures
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Significant Figures
Significant figures must be used when dealing with quantitative data
Significant figures are the digits in a number that are reliable and absolutely necessary to
indicate the quantity of that number
There are some important rules to remember for significant figures
All non-z ero digits are significant
Zeros between non-z ero digits are significant
4107 (4.s.f.)
29.009 (5.s.f)
Zeros that come before all non-z ero digits are not significant
0.00079 (2.s.f.)
0.48 (2.s.f.)
Zeros after non-z ero digits within a number without decimals are not significant
57,000 (2.s.f)
640 (2.s.f)
Zeros after non-z ero digits within a number with decimals are significant
689.0023 (7.s.f)
When rounding to a certain number of significant figures:
Identify the significant figures within the number using the rules above
Count from the first significant figure to the specified number
Use the next number as the ‘rounder decider’
If the decider is 5 or greater, increase the previous value by 1
Worked example
Write 1.0478 to 3 significant figures
Step 1: Identify the significant figures
They are all significant figures
Step 2: Count to the specified number (3rd s.f.)
1.0478
Step 3: Round up or down
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1.05 (3 s.f)
Your notes
Exam Tip
An exam question may sometimes specify how many significant figures the answer should be,
make sure you keep an eye out for this, as a mark is often given for that!
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3.14 Anomalous Readings
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Anomalous Readings
Experimental errors (also known as operator errors or ‘one off’ errors) will affect the results of
an experiment and can produce anomalies
These anomalies should be identified during the evaluation of results and before drawing
conclusions
Anomalies can be identified by looking for results or data points on a graph that do not fit with
the trend or with other repeat readings carried out during the experiment
These anomalous results will show a larger difference from the mean than the rest of the
results (a result is often taken to be anomalous if it differs from the mean result by more than
10%)
The results or ‘data’ collected from an experiment can be made more reliable if the experiment is
repeated several times and anomalies are removed
This, in turn, allows more valid conclusions to be drawn
Anomalous results are always inconsistent with other readings e.g., a point that is not on the line
of best fit of a graph
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Your notes
Identifying an anomalous result from a graph
If an anomaly occurs in the experiment:
Ignore this value when calculating the mean
Repeat this measurement
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Worked example
Your notes
A student achieves a set of repeat readings for the current through a bulb.
2.5 mA 2.8 mA 6.1 mA 2.0 mA 2.3 mA
Calculate the mean current through the bulb.
1. Identify the anomalous result
The only result that doesn't fit with the rest of the data is 6.1 mA
This can be ignored when calculating the mean
2. Calculate the mean current
2.5 + 2.8 + 2.0 + 2.3
Mean current = = 2.4 mA
4
Exam Tip
When calculating the mean of some repeat readings for data given in your practical paper, always
ignore any anomalous readings that are inconsistent when calculating the mean.
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3.15 Using a Micrometer
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Using a Micrometer
A micrometer, or a micrometer screw gauge, is a tool used for measuring small widths,
thicknesses or diameters
For example, the diameter of a copper wire
It has a resolution of 0.01 mm
The micrometer is made up of two scales:
The main scale - this is on the sleeve (sometimes called the barrel)
The thimble scale - this is a rotating scale on the thimble
Components of a micrometer
The spindle and anvil are clamped around the object being measured by rotating the ratchet
This should be tight enough so the object does not fall out but not so tight that it is
deformed
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Never tighten the spindle using the barrel, only using the ratchet. This will reduce the
chances of overtightening and z ero errors
Your notes
The value measured from the micrometer is read where the thimble scale aligns with the main
scale
This should always be recorded to 2 decimal places (e.g. 1.40 mm not just 1.4 mm)
The micrometer reading is read when the thimble scale aligns with the main scale
Exam Tip
The most common mistake in exam answers when reading from a micrometer is not giving the
reading to the correct number of significant figures! For a micrometer, this is always 3 significant
figures. This is especially important for values such as '2.30 mm' where the 0 must be on the end
to make it 3 sf instead of just 2 s.f (which would be 2.3 mm).
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3.16 Evaluating Experiments
Your notes
Evaluating Experiments
The accuracy of an experiment can be increased by repeating measurements and using mean
values
Methods seeking to reduce systematic errors result in increased accuracy
Sometimes, additional apparatus can be used to improve the experiment, by reducing errors
Some changes to the method could be:
Timing over multiple oscillations
Using a fiducial marker
Example: Oscillations
The time period of oscillations is commonly measured using a stopwatch
Reaction time is a common error when measuring time
Uncertainty in a measurement of periodic time can therefore be reduced by:
Measuring many oscillations to calculate the average time for one oscillation
Increasing the total time measured for multiple swings
It would be ideal to measure the time taken for the pendulum to complete 10 (or more)
oscillations and divide this time by 10 to determine the time period of one oscillation
One complete oscillation of a pendulum
Additional Apparatus
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A fiducial marker is a useful tool to act as a clear reference point, such as when measuring the
time period of a pendulum using a stopwatch
This improves the accuracy of a measurement of periodic time by: Your notes
Making timings by sighting the pendulum as it passes the fiducial marker
Sighting the pendulum as it passes the fiducial marker at its highest speed. The pendulum
swings fastest at its lowest point and slowest at the top of each swing
A fiducial marker is used to mark the centre of the oscillation of the pendulum
Worked example
A student wants to measure the time period of a vertical mass on a spring system. The time is
measured on a stopwatch between when the mass is pulled down till after one complete
oscillation.
Discuss how the student could reduce the error in their measured time period.
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The student should make sure the amplitude of the oscillations is large so the time period is
longer
This would reduce the effect of the human reaction time which causes a slight error when Your notes
using a stopwatch
The student should measure the time period over 10 oscillations and divide the time by 10 for the
time period of one oscillation
However, due to damping effects, the amplitude of all the oscillations, and therefore their
time periods, will not be the same
This effect is reduced if there is a large amplitude for the first oscillations
The spring must not exceed its elastic limit at any point of the experiment
If the spring is stretched too much, it will not go back to its original un-stretched position
therefore affecting the oscillations
The student must make sure the oscillations are all completing vertical
This effect will the time period if the mass is pulled down at a slight angle, or pushed one way
or another during the experiment
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Examples in Mechanics
A set square is a right-angled triangle plane used for drawing lines and determining whether two Your notes
pieces of apparatus are perpendicular to each other
In physics, it is used to determine whether:
An object is vertical
Two objects are at right angles to each other
Two lines are parallel
A plumb line can also be used to determine if a setup is vertically aligned accurately
A plumb line and set square used to make sure the setup is completely vertical
Another example is using a set square to determine whether a ruler is vertical to aid the
measurement of the extension of a spring
The right-angle side of a set square is aligned with the ruler and the bottom of the spring
This ensures the spring and the ruler are parallel to each other (or in other words, a line joining
them both is horiz ontal)
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Your notes
The set square checks the spring and ruler are parallel, to measure the extension h1 – h2
If this set up is not correctly checked with a set square, the ruler could be at an angle, thus
providing an inaccurate reading of the extension, which can often be very small
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