EE 411: CONTROL ENGINEERING I

Engr. Dr. Hassan Sabo Miya

B.Eng (ATBU, Nigeria), MSc (Sheffield, UK), PhD (UTP, Malaysia),
MIEEE, MNIEEE, Regd. Engr. (COREN).

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,

Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi State-Nigeria

January 7, 2025
Presentation Outline I
Course Outline
Basic concepts of control systems
Introduction
Basic Terminologies in Control Systems
Open-Loop Control Systems.
Closed-Loop or Feedback Control Systems.
Applications of Closed Loop Control Systems
Block Diagram Algebra
Basic Definitions in Block Diagram model
Feedback Control System Characteristics
Degenerative feedback control system
Regenerative feedback control system

Time Response Analysis

Transient and Steady State response
Test Input Signals
Performance of Second Order System
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control Systems
Presentation Outline II
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
Concept of Stability
The Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Determinant Method of Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Array Method Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion

Root Locus Technique

The Root Locus Procedure
Presentation Outline
Course Outline
Basic concepts of control systems
Introduction
Basic Terminologies in Control Systems
Open-Loop Control Systems.
Closed-Loop or Feedback Control Systems.
Applications of Closed Loop Control Systems
Block Diagram Algebra
Basic Definitions in Block Diagram model
Feedback Control System Characteristics
Degenerative feedback control system
Regenerative feedback control system
Time Response Analysis
Transient and Steady State response
Test Input Signals
Performance of Second Order System
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control Systems
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
Concept of Stability
Course Content

▶ Basic concepts and examples of control systems;

▶ Feedback, Time response analysis, concept of stability, Routh-Hurwitz
criterion, Root-locus techniques,
▶ Frequency-response analysis, Polar and Bode plots.
▶ Nyguist stability criteria. Nicholas chart;
▶ Compensation Techniques,
▶ Basic System Modelling.
Presentation Outline
Course Outline
Basic concepts of control systems
Introduction
Basic Terminologies in Control Systems
Open-Loop Control Systems.
Closed-Loop or Feedback Control Systems.
Applications of Closed Loop Control Systems
Block Diagram Algebra
Basic Definitions in Block Diagram model
Feedback Control System Characteristics
Degenerative feedback control system
Regenerative feedback control system
Time Response Analysis
Transient and Steady State response
Test Input Signals
Performance of Second Order System
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control Systems
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
Concept of Stability
Introduction: Basic Concepts
▶ Control systems are the basis of many inventions which play an important
role in the advancement of modern technology that has become more
influential in current times. Among its functions that help people perform
daily activities spanning various fields include:
▶ Daily home appliances like refrigerators, automatic rice cookers, washing
machines, etc.
▶ Industrial needs like the manufacturing sectors such as vehicle factories,
shoe factories, robotics etc.
▶ Other needs like those used in the military sector, medical sector,
electro-generation sector, astronomy and so on.
▶ Apart from the above needs, the human self also has several control
systems. For example:
▶ the human heart works to control the blood circulation to the whole body
▶ the lymph functions as a glucose regulator in our blood while
▶ the brains acts as a guard who allows a person to think and take
appropriate actions in certain matters
▶ Control Engineering is concerned with techniques that are used to solve
the following six problems in the most efficient manner possible.
▶ Identification problem : to measure variables and convert data for analysis.
▶ Representation problem : to describe a system by an analytical form or
mathematical model
▶ Solution problem:to determine the above system model response.
▶ Stability problem : general qualitative analysis of the system
▶ Design problem: modification of an existing system or develop a new one
▶ Optimization problem: from a variety of design to choose the best.
Basic Terminologies
There are several terms used in the study of control systems. Among them are:
▶ System : An arrangement or combination of several different components
that work together to achieve a primary objective.
▶ Control : To arrange or regulate a system to achieve a desired outcome.
▶ Control Variable : Measureable quantity that can be controlled.
▶ Manipulator Variable : Quantity that can be manipulated by a controller
to affect a specific process.
▶ Plant : Parts in a system that can be arranged or controlled.
▶ Controller : A device which may be situated on the external of the system
or is an element of the system itself. It functions as a control of a specific
process or plant.
▶ Input : A signal or stimulus put into a circuit in order to produce an
outcome
▶ Output : Actual response obtained from control systems based on the
input signals delivered.
▶ Regulator: The control system where the desired values of the controlled
outputs are more or less fixed and the main problem is to reject
disturbance effects.
▶ Mathematical model : A structure or system that is described as a
mathematical equation.
Basic Terminologies cont...

▶ Servo system: The control system where the outputs are mechanical
quantities like acceleration, velocity or position. Stability: It is a notion
that describes whether the system will be able to follow the input
command. In a non-rigorous sense, a system is said to be unstable if its
output is out of control or increases without bound.
▶ Multivariable Control System: A system with more than one input variable
or more than one output variable. Trade-off: The result of making a
judgment about how much compromise must be made between conflicting
criteria.
▶ Disturbance : Undesirable signals that can hinder the output conditions of
a system. These signals may originate from outside of the system or from
within the system itself.
▶ Feed-back : A mechanism responsible for measuring output that is
obtained from a system for the purpose of delivering information to the
controller so that the compensation process can be implemented.
▶ Control systems : Components linked to the plant or, in other words,
referred to as processes that can be controlled. A control system must
consist of (1) input, (2) output, (3) a checklist, (4) a controller, (5) an
activator and (6) feed-back.
Open-Loop Control Systems
▶ An open-loop control system is a kind of system whereby the output has
no effect on the actual conditions encountered.
▶ This means the output is not measured against the input or, in other
words, no feedback is involved in this particular system. An open-loop
control system can be viewed in the figure below

Figure: Open-Loop Control System

▶ Most open-loop control systems are structured based on time, such as the
bread toaster. It is difficult to gauge the acceptable standard a piece of
bread is toasted. Other examples are traffic signal and washing machine.
▶ The open-loop control system is usually unsatisfactory because the system
cannot compensate for any disturbance that occurs. This will cause the
output not to meet the desired requirements.
▶ Open-Loop Control System is used in applications in which no feedback
and error handling are required. Thus, not suitable for systems requiring
precise control
Advantages and Disadvantages of Open-Loop Control Systems
Advantages:
▶ Simple in design and easy to construct
▶ Economical since they do not require so many parts for measurement
▶ Easy to maintain because of simplicity
▶ Highly stable operation and fast
▶ No measurement: Useful when the production output is impossible or hard
to measure.
▶ Can be used for systems that don’t require precise control.

Disadvantages:
▶ Not accurate and reliable when input or system parameters are variable in
nature. Thus it cannot adapt to uncertainties
▶ Re-calibration of the parameters are required time to time
▶ Can’t handle disruptions: It can hardly handle any major disruptions.
▶ Not suitable for systems that require a high degree of accuracy and
precision.
▶ Poor Flexibility: It lacks the flexibility to self-correct and recover from
accidental stoppage. Hence no optimisation
Closed-Loop Control Systems
▶ Closed-loop control system is also known as feedback control system. This
form of control system has one or more feedback loops or circuits that
seek to overcome the errors inherent in the system.
▶ This means the output from the system will be measured and compared
with the input in order to ensure that the derived output is ascertained
even before it is rectified by the controller.
▶ Thus, It is a control system where its control action depends on both
input signal and output response as depicted in Figure below

Figure: Closed-loop Control System

▶ The closed-loop system above is a negative feedback control system

because the b(t) signal is fed to the negative sign at the comparator. From
this system, the error signal is given as

e(t) = r(t) − b(t) (1)

Closed-Loop Control Systems cont...
▶ If b(t) is fed to a positive comparator then it is said to be a positive
feedback control system and the error signal will now be given as

e(t) = r(t) + b(t) (2)

▶ The error signal e(t) produced is used as the input of the controller. The
controller will act to ensure that the error is eliminated or reduced
significantly. This depends on the effectiveness of the type of controller
used. Some controllers can totally eliminate the errors while others can
only reduce it significantly.
▶ An example of the closed-loop control system frequently used today is the
air conditioning system with an adjustable temperature controller.
▶ The air-conditioning system operates according to the temperature set by
the user despite disturbance from external environmental temperature. For
instance, if the
temperature is set at 18◦ C, then the air-conditioning system will operate
to ensure that the temperature in the room stays at 18◦ C although the
temperature outside is almost reaching 30◦ C.
▶ Other examples of a closed-loop control system are processing control
system, missile launching system, voltage stabilizers, automatic electric
iron, speed control of DC motor so on and so forth.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Closed-Loop Control Systems

Advantages:
▶ High accuracy and precision.
▶ Robust against external disturbances and variations.
▶ Suitable for systems that require a high degree of accuracy and precision.
▶ Time to time re-calibration of parameters not required

Disadvantages:
▶ Complex design and difficult to construct
▶ Expensive than that of open-loop control system
▶ High cost of maintenance.
▶ Slower speed of operation compared to open-loop control systems
▶ Less stable operation than that of open-loop control system
Liquid Level Control System
▶ This system aimed at controlling the levels of liquid that flows in a tank.
The controller in the system controls opening and closing of a valve to
maintain desired level of fluid in order to avoid shortages and overflow in
case of excess supply. This scenario is depicted below:

Figure: Liquid Level Control System

▶ The controller controls the valve based on the sensor reading. The block
diagram that represents this system is shown below.

Figure: Block Diagram of Liquid Level Control System

Room Temperature Control System
▶ In the diagram below, the thermometer continuously measure the
temperature in the room and channel the information to the controller to
ensure the temperature is the same as the input system’s setting

Figure: Room Temperature Control System

▶ For this system, the final value is achieved when actual temperature in the
space equals the setpoint temperature. The block diagram that represents
this system is shown below1 .

Figure: Block Diagram of Room Temperature Control System

1
Assignment: Briefly Explain the opration of Servomechanism and Regulator in feedback control
Presentation Outline
Course Outline
Basic concepts of control systems
Introduction
Basic Terminologies in Control Systems
Open-Loop Control Systems.
Closed-Loop or Feedback Control Systems.
Applications of Closed Loop Control Systems
Block Diagram Algebra
Basic Definitions in Block Diagram model
Feedback Control System Characteristics
Degenerative feedback control system
Regenerative feedback control system
Time Response Analysis
Transient and Steady State response
Test Input Signals
Performance of Second Order System
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control Systems
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
Concept of Stability
Basic Definitions in Block Diagram model
▶ Block Diagram: It is the pictorial representation of the
cause-and-response relationship between input and output of a physical
system.

Figure: (a) A block diagram representation of a system and (b) A block diagram
representation with gain of a system

▶ Output: The value of input multiplied by the gain of the system.

C(s) = G(s)R(s) (3)
▶ Summing point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which
two or more signals can be added or subtracted. See Below

Figure: Components of a block diagram of a system

▶ Take-off point: It is the component of a block diagram model at which a

signal can be taken directly and supplied to one or more points as shown
▶ Forward path: It is the direction of signal flow from input towards output.
▶ Feedback path: It is the direction of signal flow from output towards
Developing Block Diagram model from mathematical model:
▶ Let us discuss this concept with the following example:
ẋ1 = 3x1 + 2x2 + 5x3
ẋ2 = x1 + 4x2 + 3x3
ẋ3 = 2x1 + x2 + x3

Figure: A block diagram representation of the above example

Rules for reduction of Block Diagram model:
Rules for reduction of Block Diagram model:
Block Diagram Reduction

Procedure for reduction of Block Diagram model:2

▶ Step 1: Reduce the cascade blocks.
▶ Step 2: Reduce the parallel blocks.
▶ Step 3: Reduce the internal feedback loops.
▶ Step 4: Shift take-off points towards right and summing points towards
left.
▶ Step 5: Repeat step 1 to step 4 until the simple form is obtained.
Y (s)
▶ Step 6: Find transfer function of whole system as
R(s)
Procedure for finding output of Block Diagram model with multiple
inputs:
▶ Step 1: Consider one input taking rest of the inputs zero, find output
using the procedure described above.
▶ Step 2: Follow step 1 for each inputs of the given Block Diagram model
and find their corresponding outputs.
▶ Step 3: Find the resultant output by adding all individual outputs.

2
Assignment: Discuss the signal flow graph method and the Mason Gain formula
Presentation Outline
Course Outline
Basic concepts of control systems
Introduction
Basic Terminologies in Control Systems
Open-Loop Control Systems.
Closed-Loop or Feedback Control Systems.
Applications of Closed Loop Control Systems
Block Diagram Algebra
Basic Definitions in Block Diagram model
Feedback Control System Characteristics
Degenerative feedback control system
Regenerative feedback control system
Time Response Analysis
Transient and Steady State response
Test Input Signals
Performance of Second Order System
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control Systems
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
Concept of Stability
Introduction
▶ A control system is defined as an interconnection of components forming a
system that will provide a desired system response.
▶ Because the desired system response is known, a signal proportional to the
error between the desired and the actual response is generated.
▶ The use of this signal to control the process results in a closed-loop
sequence of operations that is called a feedback system. This closed-loop
sequence of operations is shown in Figure below

Figure: Closed Loop feedback control sequence

▶ As explained above, the error signal could be positive or negative meaning

regenerative or degenerative feedback control system
Degenerative feedback control system
▶ It is a control system where the feedback signal opposes the input signal.
Here, as shown below,
Error or actuating signal = (Input signal)–(F eedback signal).

Figure: Block diagram of a degenerative feedback control system

▶ From the figure, the error signal is given by

E(s) = R(s) − B(s)

The closed loop transfer function is thus given as

G(S)
T (S) = (4)
1 + G(s)H(s)
Regenerative feedback control system
▶ It is a control system where the feedback signal supports or adds the input
signal. Here, as shown below,
Error or actuating signal = (Input signal) + (F eedback signal).

Figure: Block diagram of a degenerative feedback control system

▶ From the figure, the error signal is given by

E(s) = R(s) + B(s)

The closed loop transfer function is thus given as

G(S)
T (S) = (5)
1 − G(s)H(s)
Sensitivity of Control Systems to Parameter Variations

▶ A process, represented by the transfer function G(s) is subject to a

changing environment, aging, uncertainty in the exact values of the
process parameters, and other factors that affect a control process.
▶ In the open-loop system, all these errors and changes result in a changing
and inaccurate output.
▶ However, a closed-loop system senses the change in the output due to the
process changes and attempts to correct the output.
▶ The sensitivity of a control system to parameter variations is of prime
importance. A primary advantage of a closed-loop feedback control system
is its ability to reduce the system’s sensitivity
▶ Consider a unity feedback control shown below

Figure: Unity feedback system

System Sensitivity cont...
▶ The system sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the percentage change in
the system transfer function to the percentage change of the process
transfer function.
▶ The system transfer function is
Y (s)
T (S) = (6)
R(s)
and thus the the sensitivity is defined as
∆T (s)/T (s)
S= (7)
∆G(s)/G(s)
taking limits for small incremental changes Equation (7) becomes
∂T /T ∂ ln T
S= = (8)
∂G/G ∂ ln G
▶ The sensitivity of the open-loop system to changes in the plant G(s) is
equal to 1.
▶ The sensitivity of the closed-loop is readily obtained by using Equation
(6). The system transfer function of the closed-loop system is
C(s)G(s)
T (S) = (9)
1 + C(s)G(s)
Sensitivity cont...

▶ Therefore, the sensitivity of the feedback system is

T ∂T G C G
SG = · = · (10)
∂G T (1 + CG)2 CG/(1 + CG)
or
T 1
SG = (11)
(1 + CG)
▶ Thus, the sensitivity may be reduced below that of the open loop system
by increasing L(s) = C(s)G(s) over the frequency range of interest.
▶ Often, we seek to determine SαT , where α is a parameter within the
transfer function, G(s). Using the chain rule yields

SαT = SG
T G
Sα (12)
▶ Mostly, the transfer function of the system T (s) is a fraction of the form

N (s, α)
T (s, α) = (13)
D(s, α)
where α is a parameter that may be subject to variation due to the
environment.
Sensitivity cont...

▶ Then we may obtain the sensitivity to α by rewriting Equation (7) as

∂ ln T ∂ ln N ∂ ln D
SαT = = − = SαN − SαD (14)
∂ ln α ∂ ln α α=α0
∂ ln α α=α0

where α0 is the nominal value of the parameter.

▶ An important advantage of feedback control systems is the ability to
reduce the effect of the variation of parameters of a control system by
adding a feedback loop.
▶ To obtain highly accurate open-loop systems, the components of the
open-loop, G(s), must be selected carefully in order to meet the exact
specifications.
▶ However, a closed-loop system allows G(s) to be less accurately specified
because the sensitivity to changes or errors in G(s) is reduced by the loop
gain L(s).
▶ This benefit of closed-loop systems is a profound advantage.
▶ A simple example will illustrate the value of feedback for reducing
sensitivity.
Sensitivity Example
Feedback amplifier: Consider an amplifier used in many applications that has
a gain −Ka, as shown in Fig (a) below,

Figure: (a) Open-loop amplifier. (b) Amplifier with feedback.

The output voltage is

Vo (s) = −Ka Vin (s) (15)
We often add feedback using a potentiometer Rp , as shown in Figure (b). The
transfer function of the amplifier without feedback is

T (s) = −Ka (16)

and the sensitivity to changes in the amplifier gain is

T
SK a
=1 (17)
Sensitivity Exmaple cont...

The block diagram model of the amplifier with feedback is shown in the Figure
below, where
R2
β= (18)
R1
and
Rp = R1 + R2 (19)

Figure: (a) Signal flow of the amplifier block. (b) Amplifier block diagram assuming
Rp >> R0 .
Sensitivity Example cont...

The closed-loop transfer function of the feedback amplifier is

−Ka
T (s) = (20)
1 + Ka β
The sensitivity of the closed-loop feedback amplifier is
T T G 1
SK a
= SG SKa = (21)
1 + Ka β

If Ka is large, the sensitivity is low. For example, if Ka = 104 and β = 0.1 we

have
T 1 1
SK a
= ≈ (22)
1 + 103 1000
or the magnitude is one-thousandth of the magnitude of the open-loop amplifier
Presentation Outline
Course Outline
Basic concepts of control systems
Introduction
Basic Terminologies in Control Systems
Open-Loop Control Systems.
Closed-Loop or Feedback Control Systems.
Applications of Closed Loop Control Systems
Block Diagram Algebra
Basic Definitions in Block Diagram model
Feedback Control System Characteristics
Degenerative feedback control system
Regenerative feedback control system
Time Response Analysis
Transient and Steady State response
Test Input Signals
Performance of Second Order System
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control Systems
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
Concept of Stability
Time Response Analysis
If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it
is called the time response of the control system. Because control systems are
inherently dynamic, their performance is usually specified in terms of both the
transient response and the steady-state response.

Figure: Time response of a system

Mathematically, we can write the time response c(t) as

c(t) = ctr (t) + css (t) (23)

where ctr(t) and css (t) are the transient and steady state responses respectively
Transient and Steady State response
Transient Response:
▶ After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to
reach steady state.
▶ So, the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state.
Therefore, the response of the control system during the transient state is
known as transient response.
▶ The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value
of ‘t’ is infinity and practically, it is five times constant. Mathematically,
we can write it as
lim ctr (t) = 0 (24)
t→∞
Steady State Response:
▶ The part of the time response that remains even after the transient
response has zero value for large values of ‘t’ is the steady state response.
▶ Hence, the transient response will be zero even during the steady state.
Example: Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response
of the control system
c(t) = 10 + 5e−t (25)
▶ Here, the second term 5e−t will be zero as t → ∞ denotes. So, this is the
transient term.
▶ And the first term 10 remains even as t → ∞. So, this is the steady state
term.
Test Input Signals

▶ Time-domain performance specifications are important indices because

control systems are inherently time-domain systems.
▶ The transient response is of prime interest for control system designers.
▶ It is necessary to determine initially whether the system is stable
▶ If the system is stable, the response to a specific input signal will provide
several measures of the performance.
▶ However, because the actual input signal of the system is usually
unknown, a standard test input signal is normally chosen.
▶ This approach is quite useful because there is a reasonable correlation
between the response of a system to a standard test input and the
system’s ability to perform under normal operating conditions.
▶ Furthermore, using a standard input allows the designer to compare
several competing designs.
▶ Many control systems experience input signals that are very similar to the
standard test signals. input, and the parabolic input.
Test Input Signals cont...
▶ The standard test input signals commonly used are the step input, the
ramp input, and the parabolic input as shown below

Figure: Test input signals: (a) step, (b) ramp, and (c) parabolic.

▶ The equations representing these test signals are given in the table below

▶ The ramp signal is the integral of the step input, and the parabola is the
integral of the ramp input.
Test Input Signals cont...

▶ A unit impulse function is also useful for test signal purposes. The unit
impulse is based on a rectangular function
( 1ϵ , ϵ ≤t≤ ϵ ;
−2 2

fϵ (t) = (26)
0 otherwise

where ϵ > 0.
▶ As ϵ approaches zero, the function fϵ (t) approaches the unit impulse
function δ(t), which has the following properties
Z ∞ Z ∞
δ(t)dt = 1 and δ(t − a)g(a)dt = g(a) (27)
−∞ −∞

▶ The impulse input is useful when we consider the convolution integral for
the output y(t) in terms of an input r(t), which is written as
Z t
g(t − τ )r(τ )dτ = L−1 G(s)R(s)

y(t) = (28)
−∞
Test Input Signals cont...
▶ The relationship in Equation (28) represents the open-loop input–output
relationship of a system G(s). If the input is a unit impulse function, we
have Z t
y(t) = g(t − τ )δ(τ )dτ (29)
−∞

The integral has a value only at τ = 0 ; therefore, y(t) = g(t) the impulse
response of the system G(t).
▶ The impulse response test signal can often be used for a dynamic system
by subjecting the system to a large-amplitude, narrow-width pulse of area
A.
▶ The standard test signals are of the general form

r(t) = tn (30)

and the laplace transform

n!
R(s) = (31)
S n+1
▶ Hence, the response to one test signal may be related to the response of
another test signal of the form of Equation (30).
▶ The step input signal is the easiest to generate and evaluate and is usually
chosen for performance tests.
Performance of Second Order System
Let us consider a single-loop second-order system and determine its response to
a unit step input. A closed-loop feedback control system is shown in Below

Figure: Second-order closed-loop control system.

The closed-loop transfer function is

G(s)
Y (s) = R(s) (32)
1 + G(s)
The above equation can be rewritten as
ωn2
Y (s) = R(s) (33)
s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2
With a unit step input (i.e R(s) = 1/s), we obtain
ωn2
Y (s) = (34)
s(s2 + 2ξωn s + ωn2 )
Performance of Second Order System cont...
It follows from Equation (34) that
1 −ξωn t
y(t) = 1 − e sin(ωn βt + θ) (35)
β
p
where β = 1 − ξ 2 , θ = cos−1 ξ, and 0 < ξ < 1.
▶ The response of this second order system for various values of the
damping ratio ξ is shown in Figure below

Figure: Transient response of a second- order system for a step input.

▶ As ξ decreases, the closed-loop poles approach the imaginary axis, and the
response becomes increasingly oscillatory.
Performance of Second Order System cont...
Standard performance measures are often defined in terms of the step response
of the closed-loop system as shown below

Figure: Transient response of a second- order system for a step input.

▶ The swiftness of the response is measured by the rise time Tr and the
peak time Tp .
▶ For underdamped systems with an overshoot, the 0–100% rise time is a
useful index.
▶ If the system is overdamped, then the peak time is not defined, and the
10–90% rise time Tr1 is normally used
Performance of Second Order System cont...

The similarity with which the actual response matches the step input is
measured by the percent overshoot and settling time Ts .
▶ The percent over shoot for a unit step input is defined as

Mpt − f v
P.O = × 100% (36)
fv
where Mpt is the peak value of the time response, and f v is the final
value of the response.
▶ Normally, f v is the magnitude of the input, but many systems have a final
value significantly different from the desired input magnitude.
▶ For the system with a unit step represented by Equation (34), we have
f v = 1.
▶ The settling time, T s, is defined as the time required for the system to
settle within a certain percentage δ of the input amplitude. This band of
±δ is shown above.
Performance of Second Order System cont...

▶ For the second-order system with closed-loop damping constant ξωn and a
response described by Equation (35), we seek to determine the time Ts for
which the response remains within 2% of the final value. This occurs
approximately when

e−ξωn Ts < 0.02 or ξωn Ts = 4, (37)

It follows from Equation (37) that

4
Ts = 4τ = (38)
ξωn
▶ Hence, we define the settling time as four time constants (i.e τ = 1/ξωn )
of the dominant roots of the characteristic equation.
▶ The steady-state error of the system may be measured on the step
response of the system as shown
▶ The transient response of the system may be described in terms of two
factors:
1. The swiftness of response, as represented by the rise time and the peak
time.
2. The closeness of the response to the desired response, as represented by the
overshoot and settling time.
Performance of Second Order System cont...
▶ As it turns out, these are often contradictory requirements; thus, a
compromise must be obtained.
▶ To obtain an explicit relation for Mpt and Tp as a function of ξ, one can
differentiate Equation (35) and set it equal to zero yielding
ωn −Jωn t
ẏ(t) = e sin(ωn βt) = 0 (39)
β
which is equal to zero when ωn βt = nπ, where n = 0, 1, 2, ..., The first
nonzero time this is equal to zero is when n = 1.
▶ Thus, we find that the peak time relationship for this second-order system
is
π
Tp = p (40)
ωn 1 − ξ 2
and the peak response is
√
1−ξ2
Mpt = 1 + e−ξπ/ (41)

Therefore, the percent overshoot is

√
1−ξ2
P.O. = 100e−ξπ/ (42)
Performance of Second Order System cont...
▶ The percent overshoot and normalized peak time ωn Tp versus the
damping ratio, ξ, are shown below.

Figure: Percent overshoot and normalized peak time versus damping ratio ξ for a
second order system (Equation (34))

▶ Upon inspection of the Figure, we see that we are confronted with a

necessary compromise between the swiftness of response and the allowable
percent overshoot.
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control Systems

▶ One of the fundamental reasons for using feedback, despite its cost and
increased complexity, is the attendant improvement in the reduction of the
steady-state error of the system.
▶ The steady-state error of a stable closed-loop system is usually several
orders of magnitude smaller than the error of an open-loop system.
▶ Consider a unity negative feedback system. In the absence of external
disturbances and measurement noise, the tracking error is
1
E(S) = R(s) (43)
1 + C(s)G(s)
▶ Using the final value theorem and computing the steady-state tracking
error yields
1
lim e(t) = ess = lim s R(s) (44)
t→∞ s→0 1 + C(s)G(s)

▶ It is useful to determine the steady-state error of the system for the three
standard test inputs (i.e step, ramp and parabolic) for the unity feedback
system.
▶ The steady-state tracking errors for non-unity feedback systems can be
found in standard control engineering textbooks.
The Steady-state Error for a Step Input

▶ The steady-state error for a step input of magnitude A is therefore

s(A/s) A
ess = lim =
s→0 1 + C(s)G(s) 1 + lims→0 C(s)G(s)
It is the form of the loop transfer function C(s)G(s) that determines the
steady state error.
▶ The loop transfer function is written in general form as
QM
K i=1
(s + zi )
C(s)G(s) = QQ
(45)
sN (s + pk )
k=1
Q
where denotes the product of the factors and zi ̸= 0, pk ̸= 0 for any
1 ≤ i ≤ M and i ≤ k ≤ Q.
▶ Therefore, the loop transfer function as s approaches zero depends on the
number of integrations, N . If N is greater than zero, then
lims→0 C(s)G(s) approaches infinity, and the steady-state error
approaches zero.
▶ The number of integration is often indicated by labeling a system with a
type number that is equal to N .
The Steady-state Error for a Step Input cont...

▶ Consequently, for a type-zero system, N = 0, the steady-state error is

A A
ess = = QM QQ (46)
1 + C(0)G(0) 1 + K i=1 zi / k=1 pk
▶ The constant C(0)G(0) is denoted by Kp , the position error constant,
and is given by
Kp = lim C(s)G(s) (47)
s→0

▶ The steady-state tracking error for a step input of magnitude A is thus

given by
A
ess = (48)
1 + Kp
▶ Hence, the steady-state error for a unit step input with one integration or
more, N ≥ 1 , is zero because
N
ess = lim QA Q = lim
As
Q Q =0 (49)
s→0 1+K zi /sN pk s→0 sN +K zi /sN pk
The Steady-state Error for a Ramp Input
▶ The steady-state error for a ramp (velocity) input with a slope A is:

s(A/s2 ) A A
ess = lim = lim = lim
s→0 1 + C(s)G(s) s→0 s + sC(s)G(s) s→0 sC(s)G(s)

▶ Again, the steady-state error depends upon the number of integrations, N .

▶ For a type-zero system, N = 0, the steady-state error is infinite.
▶ For a type-one system, N = 1, the error is

A
ess = lim Q  Q  (50)
s→0 sK (s + zi )/ s (s + pk )
or
ess = QAQ =
A
(51)
K zi / pk Kv
where Kv = is the velocity error constant and is computed as

Kv = lim sC(s)G(s) (52)

s→0

▶ When the transfer function possesses two or more integration, N ≥ 2, we

obtain a steady-state error of zero. When N = 1, a steady-state error
exists.
The Steady-state Error for a Parabolic Input

▶ When the system input is r(t) = At2 /2, the steady-state error is

s(A/s3 ) A
ess = lim = lim 2
s→0 1 + C(s)G(s) s→0 s C(s)G(s)

▶ The steady-state error is infinite for one integration.

▶ For two integrations, N = 2, and we obtain

ess = QAQ =
A
(53)
K zi / pk Ka

where Ka = is the acceleration error constant and is computed as

Ka = lim s2 C(s)G(s) (54)

s→0

▶ When the number of integrations equals or exceeds three, then the

steady-state error of the system is zero.
The Steady-state Error Summary for Step, Ramp and Parabolic Inputs
▶ Control systems are often described in terms of their type number and the
error constants, Kp , Kv , and Ka .
▶ Definitions for the error constants and the steady-state error for the three
inputs are summarized in the Tables below
Figure: Summary of Steady-State errors

Table: Summary of Steady-State errors and Equations for various constants

Input signal Error constant Equation Steady State Error

A
Step Position Kp = lims→0 C(s)G(s) ess =
1 + Kp
A
Ramp Velocity Kv = lims→0 sC(s)G(s) ess =
Kv
A
Parabola Acceleration Ka = lims→0 s2 C(s)G(s) ess =
Ka
Presentation Outline
Course Outline
Basic concepts of control systems
Introduction
Basic Terminologies in Control Systems
Open-Loop Control Systems.
Closed-Loop or Feedback Control Systems.
Applications of Closed Loop Control Systems
Block Diagram Algebra
Basic Definitions in Block Diagram model
Feedback Control System Characteristics
Degenerative feedback control system
Regenerative feedback control system
Time Response Analysis
Transient and Steady State response
Test Input Signals
Performance of Second Order System
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control Systems
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
Concept of Stability
Concept of Stability

▶ When considering the design and analysis of feedback control systems,

stability is of the utmost importance.
▶ From a practical point of view, a closed-loop feedback system that is
unstable is of minimal value.
▶ Many physical systems are inherently openloop unstable, and some
systems are even designed to be open-loop unstable.
▶ Most modern fighter aircraft are open-loop unstable by design, and without
active feedback control assisting the pilot, they cannot fly.
▶ Active control is introduced by engineers to stabilize the unstable
system—that is, the aircraft—so that other considerations, such as
transient performance, can be addressed.
▶ Using feedback, we can stabilize unstable systems and then with a
judicious selection of controller parameters, we can adjust the transient
performance.
▶ For open-loop stable systems, we still use feedback to adjust the
closed-loop performance to meet the design specifications.
▶ These specifications take the form of steady-state tracking errors, percent
overshoot, settling time, time to peak, and the other indices.
Concept of Stability cont...

▶ We can say that a closed-loop feedback system is either stable or it is not

stable. This type of stable/not stable characterization is referred to as
absolute stability.
▶ A system possessing absolute stability is called a stable system—the label
of absolute is dropped. Given that a closed-loop system is stable, we can
further characterize the degree of stability. This is referred to as relative
stability.
▶ The pioneers of aircraft design were familiar with the notion of relative
stability—the more stable an aircraft was, the more difficult it was to
maneuver (that is, to turn).
▶ One outcome of the relative instability of modern acrobatic aircraft is high
maneuverability.
▶ A acrobatic aircraft is less stable than a commercial transport; hence it can
maneuver more quickly.
▶ As we will discuss later, we can determine that a system is stable (in the
absolute sense) by determining that all transfer function poles lie in the
left-half s-plane, or equivalently, that all the eigenvalues of the system
matrix A lie in the left-half s-plane.
▶ Given that all the poles (or eigenvalues) are in the left-half s-plane, we
investigate relative-stability by examining the relative locations of the
poles (or eigenvalues).
Concept of Stability cont...
▶ A stable system is defined as a dynamic system with a bounded (limited)
system response. That is, if the system is subjected to a bounded input or
disturbance and the response is bounded in magnitude, the system is said
to be stable.
▶ In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero irrespective of
initial conditions. This type of stability is called asymptotic stability.
▶ The concept of stability can be illustrated by considering a right circular
cone placed on a plane horizontal surface. If the cone is resting on its base
and is tipped slightly, it returns to its original equilibrium position. This
position and response are said to be stable
▶ If the cone rests on its side and is displaced slightly, it rolls with no
tendency to leave the position on its side. This position is designated as
the neutral stability. On the other hand, if the cone is placed on its tip
and released, it falls onto its side. This position is said to be unstable.

Figure: Illustration of stability

Concept of Stability cont...
▶ Stability of a dynamic system is defined same way to the cone example.
▶ The response to a displacement, or initial condition, will result in either a
decreasing, neutral, or increasing response as shown below.
▶ Specifically, it follows from the definition of stability that a linear system is
stable if and only if the absolute value of its impulse response g(t),
integrated over an infinite Rrange, is finite. That is, in terms of Equation
∞
(28) for a bounded input, 0 |g(t)|dt must be finite.
▶ The location in the s-plane of the poles of a system indicates the resulting
transient response. The poles in the left-hand portion of the s-plane result
in a decreasing response for disturbance inputs. Similarly, poles on the
jω-axis and in the right-hand plane result in a neutral and an increasing
response, respectively, for a disturbance input. This division of the s-plane
is shown below. Clearly, the poles of desirable dynamic systems must lie in
the left-hand portion of the s-plane

Figure: Stability in the s-plane

Concept of Stability cont...

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Stability

▶ In terms of linear systems, we recognize that the stability requirement may
be defined in terms of the location of the poles of the closed-loop transfer
function.
▶ A closed-loop system transfer function can be written as

p(s)
T (s) (55)
q(s)

where q(s) = ∆(s) = 0 is the characteristic equation whose roots are the
poles of the closed-loop system.
▶ To obtain a bounded response, the poles of the closed-loop system must
be in the left-hand portion of the s-plane.
▶ Thus, a necessary and sufficient condition for a feedback system to be
stable is that all the poles of the system transfer function have
negative real parts.
▶ The following point should be noted about stability:
Concept of Stability cont...
1. A system is stable if all the poles of the transfer function are in the left
hand s-plane.
2. A system is not stable if not all the roots are in the left-hand plane.
3. If the characteristic equation has simple roots on the imaginary axis
(jω-axis) with all other roots in the left half-plane, the steady-state output
will be sustained oscillations for a bounded input, unless the input is a
sinusoid (which is bounded) whose frequency is equal to the magnitude of
the jω-axis roots. For this case, the output becomes unbounded. Such a
system is called marginally stable, since only certain bounded inputs
(sinusoids of the frequency of the poles) will cause the output to become
unbounded.
4. For an unstable system, the characteristic equation has at least one root in
the right half of the s-plane or repeated jω roots; for this case, the output
will become unbounded for any input.

▶ For example, if the characteristic equation of a closed-loop system is

(s + 10)(s2 + 16) = 0

then the system is said to be marginally stable. If this system is excited by

a sinusoid of frequency ω = 4, the output becomes unbounded.
Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion

▶ The Routh–Hurwitz stability method provides an answer to the question of

stability by considering the characteristic equation of the system.
▶ The characteristic equation is written as

∆(s) = q(s) = an sn + an−1 sn−1 + an−2 sn−2 + · · · + a1 s + a0 = 0 (56)

▶ To ascertain the stability of the system, it is necessary to determine
whether any one of the roots of q(s) lies in the right half of the s-plane.
▶ If Equation (56) is written in factored form, we have

an (s − r1 )(s − r2 )(s − r3 ) · · · (s − rn−1 )(s − rn ) = 0 (57)

where ri = ith root of the characteristic equation.

▶ Examining Equation (57), we note that all the coefficients will have the
same sign if all the roots are in the left-hand plane.
▶ Also, it is necessary that all the coefficients for a stable system be nonzero
Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion cont...

▶ These requirements are necessary but not sufficient.

▶ Hence, we immediately know the system is unstable if they are not
satisfied; yet if they are satisfied, we must proceed further to ascertain the
system stability.
▶ For example, when the characteristic equation is

q(s) = s3 + 3s2 + 16s + 130,

using Newton-Raphson method, the roots are at s = −5 and s = 1 ± j5

the system is unstable, and yet the polynomial possesses all positive
coefficients.
▶ The Routh–Hurwitz criterion is a necessary and sufficient criterion for
the stability of linear systems.
▶ The method was originally developed in terms of determinants, and later
developed into a more convenient array formulation.
▶ In this course, we will discuss the two approaches to Routh–Hurwitz
stability criterion.
Determinant Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion

▶ The coefficients of the characteristics equation are represented by

determinant form as follows.

an−1 an−3 an−5 ···

∆n = an an−2 an−4 ··· (58)
0 an−1 an−3 ···
Here, the determinant decreases by two along the row and by one down
the column.
▶ For stability, the following conditions must satisfy.

an−1 an−3 an−5

an−1 an−3
∆1 = an−1 > 0, ∆2 = > 0, ∆3 = an an−2 an−4 > 0, · · ·
an an−2
0 an−1 an−3
(59)
Example: Find stability of the following unity feedback system given by
K
G(s) = using Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion.
s(s + 1)
K
Solution: The closed loop transfer function is given as T (s) = 2
s +s+K
The characteristics equation q(s) = s2 + s + K = 0,
Determinant Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion cont’d
Hence, using the determinant conditions stated in Equation (59) we have

∆1 = an−1 = 1

an−1 an−3 1 0
∆2 = = =K
an an−2 1 K

For stability, ∆1 > 0 and ∆2 > 0 must be satisfied. Hence, the system is
always stable for K > 0
K
Example: Find stability of the system given by G(s) =
s(s + 2)(s + 4)
K
Solution: The closed loop transfer function is T (s) = 3
s + 6s2 + 8s + K
The characteristics equation q(s) = s3 + 6s2 + 8s + K = 0,
6 K
Hence, ∆1 = 6 > 0. ∆2 = = (48 − K) > 0, and
1 8
6 K 0
∆3 = 1 8 0 = K(48 − K) > 0
0 6 K
Therefore, the system is always stable for all K < 48.
Array Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion
▶ This approach of Routh–Hurwitz criterion is based on ordering the
coefficients of the characteristic equation

an sn + an−1 sn−1 + an−2 sn−2 + · · · + a1 s + a0 = 0

into an array as follows

sn an an−2 an−4 ···

sn−1 an−1 an−3 an−5 ···

▶ Further rows of the array, known as the Routh array, are then completed as

sn an an−2 an−4 ···

sn−1 an−1 an−3 an−5 ···
sn−2 bn−1 bn−3 bn−5 ···
sn−3 cn−1 cn−3 cn−5 ···
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
s0 hn−1

where
an−1 an−2 − an an−3 −1 an an−2
bn−1 = = ,
an−1 an−1 an−1 an−3
Array Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion Cont’d

−1 an an−4
bn−3 = ,···
an−1 an−1 an−5

−1 an−1 an−3
cn−1 = ,···
bn−1 bn−1 bn−3

▶ The algorithm for calculating the entries in the array can be followed on a
determinant basis or by using the form of the equation for bn−1 .
▶ The Routh–Hurwitz criterion states that the number of roots of q(s)
with positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in sign of
the first column of the Routh array
▶ This criterion requires that there be no changes in sign in the first column
for a stable system. This requirement is both necessary and sufficient.
▶ Four distinct cases or configurations of the first column array must be
considered, and each must be treated separately and requires suitable
modifications of the array calculation procedure:
1. No element in the first column is zero;
2. there is a zero in the first column, but some other elements of the row
containing the zero in the first column are nonzero;
3. there is a zero in the first column, and the other elements of the row
containing the zero are also zero; and
4. as in the third case, but with repeated roots on the jω-axis.
Array Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion Cont’d
Case 1: No element in the first column is zero
▶ Second-order system: The characteristic equation of a second-order
system is
q(s) = a2 s2 + a1 s + a0 (60)
The Routh array is written as
s2 a2 a0
s1 a1 0
s0 b1 0
where
a1 a0 − (0)a2
b1 = = a0
a1
▶ Therefore, the requirement for a stable second-order system is that all the
coefficients be positive or all the coefficients be negative.
▶ Example: If q(s) = s2 + s + K
Solution: The Routh array is given as
s2 1 K
s1 1 0
s0 K 0
▶ There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array.Therefore,
the system is always stable forall K > 0.
Array Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion Cont’d
▶ Third-order system: The characteristic equation of a third-order system is

s3 a3 a1
s2 a2 a0
s1 b1 0
s0 c1 0

where
a2 a1 − a3 a0 b1 a0
b1 = = a0 , and c1 = = a0
a2 b1
▶ For the third-order system to be stable, it is necessary and sufficient that
the coefficients be positive and a2 a1 > a0 a3 .
▶ The condition when a2 a1 = a0 a3 results in a marginal stability case, and
one pair of roots lies on the imaginary axis in the s-plane.
▶ Example: q(s) = s3 + 6s2 + 8s + K = 0
Solution: The Routh array is given as

s3 1 8
s2 6 K
48 − K
s1 0
s0 6
K 0
Array Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion Cont’d
▶ There are no sign changes in first column elements of this array if K < 48.
Therefore, the system is always stable for 0 < K < 48.
▶ Example: q(s) = s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 10 = 0
Solution: The Routh array is given as

s3 1 3
s2 2 10
s1 −2 0
s0 10 0
▶ There are two sign changes in first column elements of this array.
Therefore, the system is unstable.
Case 2: There is a zero in the first column, but some other elements of
the row containing the zero in the first column are nonzero.
▶ If only one element in the array is zero, it may be replaced with a small
positive number, ϵ, that is allowed to approach zero after completing the
array.
▶ For example, consider the following characteristic polynomial:

q(s) = s5 + 2s4 + 2s3 + 4s2 + 11s + 10.

Array Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion Cont’d
▶ Solution: The Routh array is given as
s5 1 2 11
s4 2 4 10
s3 ϵ 6 0
s2 c1 10 0
s1 d1 0 0
s0 10 0 0
where
4ϵ − 12 6c1 − 10ϵ
c1 = , and
ϵ c1
▶ When 0 < ϵ ≪ 1, we find that c1 < 0 and d1 > 0. Therefore, there are
two sign changes in the first column; hence the system is unstable with
two roots in the right half-plane.
▶ Example: Consider
q(s) = s4 + s3 + s2 + s + K,
Solution: The Routh array is given as
s4 1 1 K
s3 1 1 0
s2 ϵ K 0
s1 c1 0 0
s0 K 0 0
Array Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion Cont’d
where,
ϵ−K
c1 =
ϵ
▶ When 0 < ϵ ≪ 1 and K > 0, we find that c1 < 0. Therefore, there are
two sign changes in the first column; hence, the system is unstable with
two roots in the right half-plane.
▶ When 0 < ϵ ≪ 1 and K < 0, we find that c1 > 0, but because the last
term in the first column is equal to K, we have a sign change in the first
column; hence, the system is unstable with one root in the right half-plane.
▶ Consequently, the system is unstable for all values of gain K.
Case 3: There is a zero in the first column, and the other elements of the
row containing the zero are also zero
▶ This case occurs when all the elements in one row are zero or when the
row consists of a single element that is zero.
▶ This condition occurs when the polynomial contains singularities that are
symmetrically located about the origin of the s-plane. Therefore, Case 3
occurs when factors such as (s + σ)(s − σ) or (s + jω)(s − jω) occur.
▶ This problem is circumvented by utilizing the auxiliary polynomial, U (s),
which immediately precedes the zero entry in the Routh array. The order
of the auxiliary polynomial is always even and indicates the number of
symmetrical root pairs.
Array Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion Cont’d
▶ To illustrate this approach, let us consider a third-order system with the
characteristic polynomial
q(s) = s3 + 2s2 + 4s + K,
where K is an adjustable loop gain. The Routh array is then

s3 1 2
s2 4 K
8−K
s1 0
s0 2
K 0
For a stable system, it is required that 0 < K < 8
▶ When K = 8, we have two roots on the jω-axis and a marginal stability
case. Note that we obtain a row of zeros (Case 3) when K = 8.
▶ The auxiliary polynomial, U (s), is the equation of the row preceding the
row of zeros and in this case, it is obtained from the s2 -row.
▶ We recalled that this row contains the coefficients of even powers of s,
hence when K = 8
U (s) = 2s2 + Ks0 = 2s2 + 8 = 2(s2 + 4) = 2(s + j2)(s − j2) (61)
▶ When K = 8, the factors of the characteristic polynomial are
q(s) = (s + 2)(s + j2)(s − j2) (62)
Array Method of Routh–Hurwitz Criterion Cont’d
Case 4: Repeated roots of the characteristic equation on the jω-axis
▶ If the jω-axis roots of the characteristic equation are simple, the system is
neither stable nor unstable; it is instead called marginally stable, since it
has an undamped sinusoidal mode.
▶ If the jω-axis roots are repeated, the system response will be unstable
with a form t sin(ωt + ϕ). Hence, the Routh–Hurwitz criteria will not
reveal this form of instability
▶ Now, consider the system with a characteristic polynomial
q(s) = (s + 1)(s + j)(s − j)(s + j)(s − j) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + s + 1.
The Routh array is
s5 1 2 1
s4 1 2 1
s3 ϵ ϵ 0
s2 1 1 0
s1 ϵ 0 0
s0 1 0 0
▶ When 0 < ϵ ≪ 1, we note the absence of sign changes in the first column.
▶ However, as ϵ → 0, we obtain a row of zero at the s3 line and a row of zero
at the s1 line. The auxiliary polynomial at the s2 line is s2 + 1, and the
auxiliary polynomial at the s4 line is s4 + 2s2 + 1 = (s2 + 1)2 , indicating
the repeated roots on the jω-axis. Hence, the system is unstable.
Merits and Demerits of Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Merits of Routh-Hurwitz stability

1. Stability can be judged without solving the characteristic equation
2. Less calculation time
3. The number of roots in RHP can be found in case of unstable condition
4. Range of value of K for system stability can be calculated
5. Intersection point with the jw-axis can be calculated
6. Frequency of oscillation at steady-state is calculated
Demerits of Routh-Hurwitz stability
1. It is valid for only real coefficient of the characteristic equation
2. Unable to give exact locations of closed-loop poles
3. Does not suggest methods for stabilizing an unstable system
4. Applicable only to the linear system
Presentation Outline
Course Outline
Basic concepts of control systems
Introduction
Basic Terminologies in Control Systems
Open-Loop Control Systems.
Closed-Loop or Feedback Control Systems.
Applications of Closed Loop Control Systems
Block Diagram Algebra
Basic Definitions in Block Diagram model
Feedback Control System Characteristics
Degenerative feedback control system
Regenerative feedback control system
Time Response Analysis
Transient and Steady State response
Test Input Signals
Performance of Second Order System
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control Systems
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
Concept of Stability
Root Locus Technique-Introduction
▶ The relative stability and the transient performance of a closed-loop
control system are directly related to the location of the closed-loop roots
of the characteristic equation in the s-plane. It is frequently necessary to
adjust one or more system parameters in order to obtain suitable root
locations.
▶ Therefore, it is worthwhile to determine how the roots of the characteristic
equation of a given system migrate about the s-plane as the parameters
are varied; that is, it is useful to determine the locus of roots in the
s-plane as a parameter is varied.
▶ The root locus is a graphical method for sketching the locus of roots in
the s-plane as a parameter is varied.
▶ The root locus method provides the engineer with a measure of the
sensitivity of the roots of the system to a variation in the parameter being
considered and the technique may be used to great advantage in
conjunction with the Routh–Hurwitz criterion.
▶ The root locus method provides graphical information, and therefore an
approximate sketch can be used to obtain qualitative information
concerning the stability and performance of the system.
▶ Furthermore, the locus of roots of the characteristic equation of a
multiloop system may be investigated as readily as for a single-loop
system. If the root locations are not satisfactory, the necessary parameter
adjustments often can be readily ascertained from the root locus
Root Locus Concept
▶ The dynamic performance of a closed-loop control system is described by
the closed-loop transfer function
Y (s) p(s)
T (s) = = (63)
R(s) q(s)

where p(s) and q(s) are polynomials in s.

▶ The roots of the characteristic equation q(s) determine the modes of
response of the system.

Figure: Closed-loop control system with a variable parameter K.

▶ In the case of the simple single-loop system shown above, we have the
characteristic equation
1 + KG(s) = 0 (64)
where K is a variable parameter and 0 ≤ K < ∞.
Root Locus Concept Cont’d
▶ The characteristic roots of the system must satisfy Equation (64), where
the roots lie in the s-plane.
▶ Because s is a complex variable, Equation (64) may be rewritten in polar
form as
|KG(s)| KG(s) = −1 + j0 (65)
and therefore it is necessary that
|KG(s)| = 1 (66)
and
KG(s) = 180◦ + k360◦ , ... (67)
where k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±....
▶ The root locus is the path of the roots of the characteristic equation
traced out in the s-plane as a system parameter varies from zero to
infinity.
▶ Consider the second-order system shown in Figure below.

Figure: Unity feedback control system with variable parameter K

Root Locus Concept Cont’d
▶ The characteristic equation is

K
∆(s) = 1 + KG(s) = 1 +
s(s + 2)
or, alternatively,

∆(s) = s2 + 2s + K = s2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2

▶ The locus of the roots as the gain K is varied is found by requiring that

K
|KG(s)| = =1 (68)
s(s + 2)

and
KG(s) = ±180◦ , ±540◦ , (69)
The gain K is varied from zero to infinity.
▶ For a second-order system, the roots are
p
s1 , s2 = −ζωn ± ωn ζ 2 − 1, (70)

and for ζ < 1, we know that θ = cos−1 ζ .

Root Locus Concept Cont’d
▶ Graphically, for two open-loop poles as shown in Figure below, the locus of
roots is a vertical line for ζ ≤ 1 in order to satisfy the angle requirement,

Figure: Root locus for a second-order system when Ke < K1 < K2 . The locus is
shown as heavy lines, with arrows indicating the direction of increasing K. Note that
roots of the characteristic equation are denoted by □ on the root locus.
Root Locus Concept Cont’d
▶ For example, as shown in below, at a root s1 , the angles are

K
= − s1 − (s1 + 2) = − (180◦ −θ)+θ = −180◦ (71)
 
s(s + 2) s=s1

Figure: Evaluation of the angle and gain at s1 for gain K = K1

▶ This angle requirement is satisfied at any point on the vertical line that is
a perpendicular bisector of the line 0 to −2.
Root Locus Concept Cont’d
▶ Additionally, the gain K at the particular points is found by using
Equation (68) as

K K
= =1 (72)
s(s + 2) s=s1
|s1 ||s1 + 2|

and thus
K = |s1 ||s1 + 2| (73)
where |s1 | is the magnitude of the vector from the origin to s1 , and
|s1 + 2| is the magnitude of the vector from −2 to s1 .
▶ For a multi-loop closed-loop system, using the Mason’s signal-flow gain
formula yields
N N N
X X X
∆(s) = 1 − Ln + Ln Lm − Ln Lm Lp + · · ·
n=1
n, m n, m, p
nontouching nontouching
(74)
where Ln equals the value of the nth self-loop transmittance.
▶ Hence, we have a characteristic equation, which may be written as

q(s) = ∆(s) = 1 + F (s). (75)

Root Locus Concept Cont’d
▶ To find the roots of the characteristic equation, we set Equation (75)
equal to zero and obtain
1 + F (s) = 0 (76)
▶ Equation (76) may be rewritten as

F (s) = −1 + j0, (77)

and the roots of the characteristic equation must also satisfy this relation.
In general, the function F (s) may be written as

K(s + z1 )(s + z2 )(s + z3 ) · · · (s + zm )

F (s) = (78)
(s + p1 )(s + p2 )(s + p3 ) · · · (s + pn )
▶ Then the magnitude and angle requirement for the root locus are

K|s + z1 ||s + z2 | · · ·
|F (s)| = =1 (79)
|s + p1 ||s + p2 | · · ·
and

s + p1 + s + p2 +· · · = 180◦ +k360◦


F (s) = s + z1 + s + z2 +· · ·−
(80)
where k is an integer
Root Locus Concept Cont’d

▶ The magnitude requirement in Equation (79) enables us to determine the

value of K for a given root location s1
▶ A test point in the s-plane, s1 , is verified as a root location when Equation
(80) is satisfied where all angles are measured in a counterclockwise
direction from a horizontal line.
▶ To further illustrate the root locus procedure, let us consider the
second-order system of Figure below where a > 0.

Figure: Single-loop system.

▶ The effect of varying the parameter a can be effectively portrayed by

rewriting the characteristic equation for the root locus form with a as the
multiplying factor in the numerator.
Root Locus Concept Cont’d
▶ The characteristics equation is then written as follows:

K
1 + KG(s) = 1 + =0 (81)
s(s + a)
or, alternatively,
s2 + as + K = 0
Dividing by the factor s2 + K, we obtain
as
1+ =0 (82)
s2 + K
▶ Then the magnitude criterion is satisfied when at the root s1

a|s1 |
=1 (83)
|s21 + K|
▶ The angle criterion is
√ √

s1 − s1 + j K + s1 − j K = ±180◦ ± 540◦ (84)
▶ In principle, we could construct the root locus by determining the points in
the s-plane that satisfy the angle criterion.
Root Locus Concept Cont’d
▶ The root locus for the characteristic equation in Equation (81) is shown in
Figure below

Figure: Root locus as a function of the parameter a, where a > 0

▶ Specifically at the root s1 , the magnitude of the parameter a is found from

Equation (83) as √ √
|s1 − j K||s1 + j K|
a= (85)
|s1 |
Root Locus Concept Cont’d

▶ The roots of the system merge on the real axis at the point s2 and provide
a critically damped response to a step input.
▶ The parameter a has a magnitude at the critically damped roots, s2 = σ2 ,
equal to
√ √
|σ2 − j K||σ2 + j K| 1 2 √
a= = (σ2 + K) = 2 K (86)
|σ2 | σ2
√
where σ2 is evaluated from the s-plane vector lengths as σ2 = K.
▶ As a increases beyond the critical value, the roots are both real and
distinct; one root is larger than σ2 , and one is smaller.
▶ In general, we desire an orderly process for locating the locus of roots as a
parameter varies.
▶ In the next section, we will develop such an orderly approach to sketching
a root locus diagram.
Root Locus Procedure
The roots of the characteristic equation of a system provide valuable insight
concerning the response of the system. To locate the roots of the characteristic
equation in a graphical manner on the s-plane, we develop an orderly procedure
of seven steps that facilitates the rapid sketching of the locus.
Step 1 Prepare the root locus sketch. First write the characteristic equation as

1 + F (s) = 0 (87)

Rearrange the equation, if necessary, so that the parameter of interest, K,

appears as the multiplying factor in the form,

1 + KP (s) = 0 (88)

We are interested in determining the locus of roots when K varies as

0 ≤ K < ∞.
Factor P (s), and write the polynomial in the form of poles and zeros as
follows: QM
i=1
(s + zi )
1 + K QN =0 (89)
j=1
(s + pj )
Locate the poles −pj and zeros −zi on the s-plane with selected symbols.
By convention, we use “x” to denote poles and “o” to denote zeros.
Root Locus Procedure Cont...

Rewriting Equation (89), we have

N
Y M
Y
(s + pj ) + K (s + zi ) = 0 (90)
j=1 i=1

Note that Equation (90) is another way to write the characteristic

equation. When K = 0, the roots of the characteristic equation are the
poles of P (s). To see this, consider Equation (90) with K = 0. Then, we
have
N
Y
(s + pj ) = 0. (91)
j=1

When solved, this yields the values of s that coincide with the poles of
P (s). Conversely, as K → ∞ , the roots of the characteristic equation are
the zeros of P (s). To see this, first divide Equation (90) by K. Then, we
have
N M
1Y Y
(s + pj ) + (s + zi ) = 0 (92)
K
j=1 i=1
Root Locus Procedure Cont...

which, as K → ∞, reduces to
M
Y
(s + zi ) = 0 (93)
i=1

When solved, this yields the values of s that coincide with the zeros of
P (s). Therefore, we note that the locus of the roots of the characteristic
equation 1 + KP (s) = 0 begins at the poles of P (s) and ends at the zeros
of P (s) as K increases from zero to infinity. For most functions P (s) that
we will encounter, several of the zeros of P (s) lie at infinity in the s-plane.
This is because most of our functions have more poles than zeros. With N
poles and M zeros and N > M , we have N − M branches of the root
locus approaching the N − M zeros at infinity.
Step 2 Locate the segments of the real axis that are root loci. The root locus on
the real axis always lies in a section of the real axis to the left of an odd
number of poles and zeros. This fact is ascertained by examining the angle
criterion of Equation (80). These two useful steps in plotting a root locus
will be illustrated by a suitable example.