Resistivity and Conductivity

Introduction
 Definition of Current Electricity

 Current electricity refers to the flow of electric charge through a conductor. This flow is
typically carried by electrons in a wire, but it can also involve ions in a solution or plasma.
The rate of flow of electric charge is measured in amperes (A), and this flow is driven by a
potential difference (voltage) across the conductor. The relationship between current (I),
voltage (V), and resistance ® is given by Ohm’s Law: [I = V/R].

 History of Current Electricity

 The history of current electricity is rich with discoveries and innovations that have shaped
modern technology:

o Early Discoveries:

 Ancient Greeks: The earliest recorded observations of electrical phenomena date back to the
ancient Greeks, who noticed that rubbing amber could attract small objects. This was an
early observation of static electricity.

 William Gilbert (1600): Often considered the father of electrical engineering, Gilbert coined
the term “electricity” from the Greek word for amber, “elektron.”

o 18th Century:

 Benjamin Franklin (1752): Conducted his famous kite experiment, demonstrating that
lightning is a form of electrical discharge.

 Luigi Galvani (1780): Discovered bioelectricity by observing the twitching of frog legs when
struck by a spark, leading to the study of electrophysiology.

o 19th Century:

 Alessandro Volta (1800): Invented the voltaic pile, the first chemical battery, which provided
a continuous source of electric current.

 André-Marie Ampère (1820): Formulated Ampère’s law, describing the magnetic force
between electric currents, and introduced the concept of current intensity, symbolized by “I.”
Resistivity and Conductivity

 Georg Simon Ohm (1827): Published Ohm’s Law, establishing the relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance.

 Michael Faraday (1831): Discovered electromagnetic induction, which is the principle behind
electric generators and transformers.

o The War of the Currents (1880s-1890s):

 Thomas Edison: Advocated for direct current (DC) electricity, which flows continuously in
one direction. DC was initially used for electric lighting and power distribution.

 Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse: Promoted alternating current (AC) electricity, which
periodically reverses direction. AC proved to be more efficient for long-distance power
transmission due to its ability to be easily transformed to different voltages.

 The rivalry between Edison and Tesla, known as the “War of the Currents,” ultimately
resulted in the widespread adoption of AC power systems.

o 20th Century and Beyond:

 Development of Semiconductors: The invention of the transistor in 1947 by John Bardeen,

Walter Brattain, and William Shockley revolutionized electronics, leading to the development
of modern computers and communication systems.

 Advancements in Power Generation and Distribution: Innovations in power generation,

such as nuclear power and renewable energy sources, have continued to evolve the field of
current electricity.

 Current electricity remains a fundamental concept in physics and engineering, underpinning

the operation of countless devices and systems in our modern world
Resistivity and Conductivity

Basic Concepts of Current Electricity

 Electric Current

 Definition: Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor. It is measured
in amperes (A), where one ampere is equal to one coulomb of charge passing through a
point in one second.

 Types of Current:

o Direct Current (DC): The flow of electric charge is unidirectional. Common sources
include batteries and DC power supplies.

o Alternating Current (AC): The flow of electric charge periodically reverses direction.
AC is commonly used in household power supplies.

 Electric Charge

 Definition: Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a

force in an electric field. It is measured in coulombs ©.

 Types of Charge: Positive and negative charges. Like charges repel each other, while opposite
charges attract.

 Potential Difference (Voltage)

 Definition: Potential difference, or voltage, is the work done to move a unit charge from one
point to another. It is measured in volts (V).

 Formula: ( V = W/Q ), where ( V ) is the voltage, ( W ) is the work done, and ( Q ) is the
charge.

 Resistance

 Definition: Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electric current through a conductor. It
is measured in ohms (Ω).

 Factors Affecting Resistance:

I. Material of the conductor

Resistivity and Conductivity

II. Length of the conductor

III. Cross-sectional area of the conductor

IV. Temperature of the conductor

 Ohm’s Law

 Statement: Ohm’s Law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points, provided the temperature remains
constant.

 Formula: ( I = V/R ), where ( I ) is the current, ( V ) is the voltage, and ( R ) is the resistance.

 6. Resistivity and Conductivity

 Resistivity (ρ): A material’s inherent resistance to current flow, measured in ohm-meters

(Ω·m). It depends on the material and temperature.

 Conductivity (σ ): The inverse of resistivity, indicating how well a material conducts

electricity, measured in siemens per meter (S/m).

 7. Kirchhoff’s Laws

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): The total current entering a junction equals the total current
leaving the junction.

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): The sum of all voltages around a closed loop equals zero.

 8. Electrical Power and Energy

 Power: The rate at which electrical energy is consumed or produced. It is measured in watts
(W).

 Formula: ( P = VI ), where ( P ) is the power, ( V ) is the voltage, and ( I ) is the current.

 Energy Consumption: Measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). Formula: ( E = Pt ), where ( E ) is

the energy, ( P ) is the power, and ( t ) is the time.

 9. Combination of Resistors

 Series Circuits: Resistors are connected end-to-end. Total resistance: (R = R1 + R2 + R3 +… )

 Parallel Circuits: Resistors are connected across the same two points. Total resistance on:

(1/R{total} = 1/R1+ 1/R2 + 1/R3+…)

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 10. Measurement Instruments

 Ammeter: Measures current in a circuit.

 Voltmeter: Measures voltage across two points in a circuit.

 Multimeter: A versatile instrument that can measure voltage, current, and resistance.
Resistivity and Conductivity

Resistivity and Conductivity

5. Resistivity and Conductivity

 Definition and Units:

o Resistivity (ρ): A material’s inherent resistance to current flow, measured in ohm-

meters (Ω·m).

o Conductivity (σ): The inverse of resistivity, indicating how well a material conducts
electricity, measured in siemens per meter (S/m).

 Factors Affecting Resistivity:

o Material type

o Temperature

o Physical state (solid, liquid, gas)

 Temperature Dependence:

o For most conductors, resistivity increases with temperature.

o For semiconductors, resistivity decreases with temperature.

6. Kirchhoff’s Laws

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): The total current entering a junction equals the total current
leaving the junction.

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): The sum of all voltages around a closed loop equals zero.

 Applications in Circuit Analysis:

o Used to analyze complex circuits by breaking them down into simpler parts.

7. Electrical Power and Energy

 Power Formula: ( P = VI )

o Units: Power (P) in Watts (W)

 Energy Consumption: ( E = Pt )

o Units: Energy (E) in kilowatt-hours (kWh)

 Example:

o Problem: Calculate the power consumed by a device with a current of 3A and a

voltage of 12V.

o Solution: Using ( P = VI ), ( P = 12V \times 3A = 36W ).

8. Combination of Resistors

 Series Circuits:
Resistivity and Conductivity

o Resistors are connected end-to-end.

o Total resistance ( R_{total} = R_1 + R_2 + R_3 + \ldots )

 Parallel Circuits:

o Resistors are connected across the same two points.

o Total resistance ( \frac{1}{R_{total}} = \frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}{R_2} + \frac{1}{R_3} + \

ldots )

 Practical Examples:

o Household wiring

o Electronic devices

9. Measurement Instruments

 Ammeter: Measures current in a circuit.

 Voltmeter: Measures voltage across two points in a circuit.

 Multimeter: A versatile instrument that can measure voltage, current, and resistance.

10. Experimental Setup

 Required Materials:

o Resistors

o Power supply

o Connecting wires

o Ammeter and Voltmeter

 Step-by-Step Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Ensure all connections are secure.

3. Measure and record the current and voltage.

4. Calculate the resistance using Ohm’s Law.

 Observations and Results:

o Record the readings in a table.

o Compare calculated and measured values.

11. Graphs and Diagrams

 Circuit Diagrams:

o Draw diagrams for series and parallel circuits.

 Graphs:
Resistivity and Conductivity

o Plot Current vs. Voltage to verify Ohm’s Law.

12. Advanced Topics

 Superconductivity:

o Zero resistance at very low temperatures.

o Applications in MRI machines, maglev trains.

 Semiconductors:

o Materials with conductivity between conductors and insulators.

o Used in electronic devices like diodes and transistors.

13. Conclusion

 Summary of Key Points:

o Current electricity is essential for understanding and designing electrical circuits.

o Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws, and the concepts of resistivity and conductivity are
fundamental.

 Importance of Understanding Current Electricity:

o Crucial for advancements in technology and everyday applications.

14. References

 Textbooks:

o “Physics for Class 12” by NCERT

o “Concepts of Physics” by H.C. Verma

 Online Resources:

o CISCE Physics Syllabus

o IQ Classes Notes