LECTURE 7

Social development
What is social development?

Social development is the acquisition of social norms through the process of socialization. Social
development also includes the ability to interact with others in ways that serve the common good of a
given society

Social Development Theories

Bowlby’s Social Development Theory

Edward John Mostyn "John" Bowlby (26 February 1907 – 2 September 1990) was a British psychologist,
psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, notable for his interest in child development and for his pioneering work
in attachment theory.

Bowlby was born in London to an upper-middle-class family. He was the fourth of six children and was
brought up by a nanny in the British fashion of his class at that time. His father, Sir Anthony Alfred
Bowlby, first Baronet, was surgeon to the King's Household, with a tragic history: at age five, Sir
Anthony's own father, Thomas William Bowlby, (John's grandfather) was killed while serving as a war
correspondent in the opium wars.

What is Attachment?

Attachment is an emotional bond to another person. Psychologist John Bowlby was the first attachment
theorist, describing attachment as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings"
(Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers
have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life. According to Bowlby, attachment also serves to
keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the child's chances of survival.

The central theme of attachment theory is that mothers who are available and responsive to their infant's
needs establish a sense of security. The infant knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a
secure base for the child to then explore the world.

Characteristics of Attachment

 Safe Haven: When the child feel threatened or afraid, he or she can return to the caregiver for comfort
and soothing.

 Secure Base: The caregiver provides a secure and dependable base for the child to explore the world.

 Proximity Maintenance: The child strives to stay near the caregiver, thus keeping the child safe.

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 Separation Distress: When separated from the caregiver, the child will become upset and distressed.

Ainsworth's "Strange Situation"

In her 1970's research, psychologist Mary Ainsworth expanded greatly upon Bowlby's original work. Her
groundbreaking “Strange situation” study revealed the profound effects of attachment on behavior. In the
study, researchers observed children between the ages of 12 and 18 months as they responded to a
situation in which they were briefly left alone and then reunited with their mothers (Ainsworth, 1978).
Based upon the responses the researchers observed, Ainsworth described three major styles of
attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Later,
researchers Main and Solomon (1986) added a fourth attachment style called disorganized-insecure
attachment based upon their own research. A number of studies since that time have supported
Ainsworth's attachment styles and have indicated that attachment styles also have an impact on behaviors
later in life.

Characteristics of Secure Attachment

 Securely attached children exhibit distress when separated from caregivers and are happy when their
caregiver returns. Remember, these children feel secure and able to depend on their adult caregivers.
When the adult leaves, the child may be upset but he or she feels assured that the parent or caregiver
will return.
 When frightened, securely attached children will seek comfort from caregivers. These children know
their parent or caregiver will provide comfort and reassurance, so they are comfortable seeking them
out in times of need.

Characteristics of Ambivalent Attachment

 Ambivalently attached children usually become very distressed when a parent leaves. This attachment
style is considered relatively uncommon, affecting an estimated 7-15% of U.S. children. Research
suggests that ambivalent attachment is a result of poor maternal availability. These children cannot
depend on their mother (or caregiver) to be there when the child is in need.

Characteristics of Avoidant Attachment

 Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents or caregivers. When offered a choice, these
children will show no preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger. Research has suggested
that this attachment style might be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers. Children who are
punished for relying on a caregiver will learn to avoid seeking help in the future.

Problems with Attachment

What happens to children who do not form secure attachments? Research suggests that failure to form
secure attachments early in life can have a negative impact on behavior in later childhood and throughout
the life. Children diagnosed with oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD), or post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) frequently display attachment problems, possibly due to early abuse,

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neglect, or trauma. Clinicians suggest that children adopted after the age of six months have a higher risk
of problems with attachment.

While attachment styles displayed in adulthood are not necessarily the same as those seen in infancy,
research suggests that early attachments can have a serious impact on later relationships. For example,
those who are securely attached in childhood tend to have good self-esteem, strong romantic
relationships, and the ability to self-disclose to others. For more information, see this articles on
attachment styles.

Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura was born on December 4, 1925 in Mundare, in Alberta (Canada), a small town of
roughly four hundred inhabitants, as the youngest child, and only son, in a family of eight. Bandura is of
Ukrainian and Polish descent.

Psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as social learning theory. According to this theory
of child development, children learn new behaviors from observing other people. Unlike behavioral
theories, Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only way that people learned new
things. Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment could
also lead to learning. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop
new skills and acquire new information.

An Overview of Bandura's Social Learning Theory

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the
effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."
-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

What is Social Learning Theory?

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of
learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory,
Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.

His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by
watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used
to explain a wide variety of behaviors.

Basic Social Learning Concepts

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn
through observation. Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process.
Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will
result in a change in behavior.

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 Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

1. People can learn through observation.

Observational Learning

In his famous "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they
have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently
toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they
began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films,
television programs, or online media.

2. Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic Reinforcement

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning
and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride,
satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps
connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social
learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive
theory.'

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning
demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.

The Modeling Process

Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner can
play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed.
The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:
 Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to
have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to
the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.

 Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be

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 affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to
observational learning.
 Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform
the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill
advancement.
 Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the
behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation.
While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some
type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra
credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

Social Development Theory (Lev Vygotsky)

Overview:

The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role
in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between
people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to
voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions
originate as actual relationships between individuals." (p57).

A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends
upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage
in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill
that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.

Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization.
For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose of
communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow "inner speech".
Vygotsky's theory is complementary to the work of Bandura on social learning and a key component of
situated learning theory.

Scope/Application:

This is a general theory of cognitive development. Most of the original work was done in the context of
language learning in children (Vygotsky, 1962), although later applications of the framework have been
broader (see Wertsch, 1985).

Example:

Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, this behavior begins as a
meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has
meaning. In particular, the pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.

Principles:

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1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.

2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

Summary:
Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and
cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.
Originator: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).
Key terms: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934),
who lived during Russian Revolution. Vygotsky’s work was largely unkown to the West until it was
published in 1962.
Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes:

Major themes:
1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to
Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes
learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the
child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual
level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).”
(Vygotsky, 1978).
2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or
concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO
could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to
perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving
the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.

Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and
interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop
from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children
develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed
that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.

Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or
lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in
which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a
teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in
students. Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.

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