Geological Time scale

Pre-Cambrian:

1. The Hadean Eon (4.6–4.0 billion years ago) marks the formation of
Earth, beginning with its accretion from the solar nebula. Intense heat
from collisions, radioactive decay, and gravitational compression kept
the planet molten. Around 4.5 billion years ago, a collision with a Mars-
sized body, Theia, led to the formation of the Moon. As Earth cooled, its
surface solidified to form the first crust, while volcanic activity released
gases to create a thick, toxic atmosphere of carbon dioxide, water vapor,
methane, and ammonia, with no free oxygen. Early oceans may have
formed as water vapor condensed, setting the stage for later
developments in Earth's history.

2. The Archean Eon (4.0–2.5 billion years ago) marks a significant phase
in Earth's history, characterized by the formation of the first stable
continental crust and the emergence of life. During this eon, Earth's
surface cooled further, allowing the development of oceans, while
volcanic activity remained intense. Life began with the appearance of
simple, single-celled organisms (prokaryotes), and around 3.5 billion
years ago, photosynthetic cyanobacteria emerged, initiating the gradual
release of oxygen into the atmosphere. The Archean also saw the Earth's
magnetic field stabilize and the early development of tectonic processes,
with smaller protocontinents forming as a precursor to modern plate
tectonics.

3. The Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion–541 million years ago) is a critical

period in Earth's history, marked by major geological, atmospheric, and
biological transformations. During this time, Earth's atmosphere
underwent the Great Oxidation Event, where oxygen produced by
photosynthetic cyanobacteria began accumulating, profoundly altering
global environments. This eon saw the formation and breakup of
supercontinents like Columbia, Rodinia, and Pannotia, alongside the
evolution of more stable plate tectonic activity. Life diversified with the
emergence of eukaryotes (cells with nuclei) around 1.8 billion years ago,
followed by the first multicellular organisms in the late Proterozoic. The
Neoproterozoic Era (1.0 billion–541 million years ago) also
experienced "Snowball Earth" glaciations, where the planet was almost
entirely ice-covered. By the end of the eon, the first animals (metazoans)
appeared, setting the stage for the Cambrian Explosion of life in the
Phanerozoic Eon.

Phanerozoic Eon
Paleozoic:
Mesozoic
Cenezoic
Notes:
Oil and natural gas come from organic matter that was buried in sedimentary rock
formations at some time in the geologic past. Very little amount of petroleum has
come from pre-cambrian rocks, bz of the primitive organisms that generated
organic matter. The most amount of petroleum (60%) was originated during the
Jurassic and Crateceus periods of the Mesozoic era.

The Earth was formed in Hadean eon in those times oceans also were formed, no
oxygen.
The first life (of prokaryotes) was appeared during Archean, also Earth's earliest
crust and continents were formed, Oceans rich in iron, little oxygen in the
atmosphere.
The Great Oxydation or the rise of atmospheric oxygen event occurred in
Proterozoic, first multicellular organisms (Sponges, simple algae) and prokaryotes
came into existence.

Paleozoic era (Phanerozoic eon)

Cambrian: Cambrian Explosion or rapid diversification of life, First trilobites,
brachiopods, and mollusks.
Ordovician: First coral reefs and jawless fish, Early land plants (moss-like), Ended
with a major glaciation and mass extinction.
Silurian: First vascular plants (with transport tissues), Jawed fish and early
arthropods appear.
Devonian: "Age of Fish" with rapid fish evolution, First forests and seed-bearing
plants, First tetrapods (early land-dwelling vertebrates).
Carboniferous: Formation of vast coal swamps, First reptiles and large insects,
Dominance of amphibians.
Permian: Pangaea forms as a supercontinent, Diversification of reptiles and the
ancestors of mammals, Ends with the Permian-Triassic extinction (largest
extinction event).
Mesozoic Era
Triassic: Early dinosaurs and mammals appear, Reptiles dominate land and sea,
Ended with another extinction event.
Jurassic: Dominance of dinosaurs like sauropods and theropods, First birds
evolve from dinosaurs, Pangaea begins breaking apart.
Cretaceous: Rise of flowering plants (angiosperms), Ended with the Cretaceous-
Paleogene extinction (killed dinosaurs, except birds).

Cenozoic Era
Paleogene: Mammals diversify and dominate ecosystems, Modern birds evolve,
Tropical climates expand.
Neogene: Grasslands spread, influencing herbivore evolution, Early hominids
(ancestors of humans) appear.
Quaternary: Ice ages and the spread of humans, Extinction of many megafauna
(woolly mammoths, saber-tooth cats), Modern humans evolve (~300,000 years
ago).

Precambrian (4.6 Ga – 541 Ma)

 Stromatolites:
o Formed by cyanobacteria, these layered microbial structures are some of the
earliest signs of life on Earth.
o Abundant in shallow marine environments.
 Microfossils:
o Single-celled organisms like acritarchs and prokaryotes.
o Important evidence for early life.

Paleozoic Era (541–252 Ma)

Cambrian (541–485 Ma)

 Trilobites:
o Extinct arthropods that dominated marine ecosystems.
o Found in diverse environments, with many well-preserved fossils.
 Brachiopods:
o Marine organisms resembling clams, very common in Cambrian seas.
 Archaeocyathids:
o Reef-building sponges, abundant in early Cambrian.

Ordovician (485–444 Ma)

 Graptolites:
o Colonial marine organisms, excellent index fossils for this period.
 Bryozoans:
o Colonial filter-feeding organisms, widespread in shallow seas.
 Nautiloids:
o Early relatives of squids and octopuses, abundant and diverse.

Silurian (444–419 Ma)

 Corals:
o Tabulate and rugose corals built extensive reefs.
 Eurypterids (Sea Scorpions):
o Large predatory arthropods, common in coastal and estuarine environments.

Devonian (419–359 Ma)

 Fish Fossils:
 o Known as the "Age of Fishes," placoderms (armored fish) and early sharks were
abundant.
 Ammonoids:
o Evolved from nautiloids, became highly diverse and widespread.
 Plant Fossils:
o Early vascular plants like Rhynia and primitive forests with lycophytes and ferns.

Carboniferous (359–299 Ma)

 Ferns and Seed Ferns (Pteridophytes):

o Dominant vegetation in vast coal-forming swamp forests.
 Crinoids:
o Marine echinoderms resembling sea lilies, abundant on seafloors.
 Amphibians:
o Fossils of early tetrapods like Ichthyostega are common.

Permian (299–252 Ma)

 Fusulinids:
o Large, shelled protists, important index fossils.
 Glossopteris:
o Seed fern that dominated southern continents, indicative of Gondwana.

Mesozoic Era (252–66 Ma)

Triassic (252–201 Ma)

 Cycads and Conifers:

o Dominant plants in terrestrial ecosystems.
 Marine Reptiles:
o Ichthyosaurs and early plesiosaurs were abundant.
 Ammonoids:
o Continued diversification and dominance in marine settings.

Jurassic (201–145 Ma)

 Dinosaurs:
o Examples include Stegosaurus and Allosaurus.
 Pterosaurs:
o Flying reptiles like Pterodactylus.
 Belemnites:
o Squid-like cephalopods with bullet-shaped internal skeletons.

Cretaceous (145–66 Ma)

 Flowering Plants (Angiosperms):

o First appeared and became widespread.
 Dinosaurs:
o Famous species like Tyrannosaurus rex and Triceratops.
  Marine Reptiles:
o Mosasaurs became dominant predators in the seas.

Cenozoic Era (66 Ma – Present)

Paleogene (66–23 Ma)

 Mammals:
o Early ancestors of modern mammals diversified.
 Foraminifera:
o Microscopic marine organisms, abundant in marine sediments.
 Birds:
o Diversified after the extinction of dinosaurs.

Neogene (23–2.6 Ma)

 Grass Fossils:
o Expansion of grasslands led to widespread grass pollen and phytoliths.
 Mammalian Megafauna:
o Fossils of giant mammals like mastodons, saber-toothed cats, and early horses.

Quaternary (2.6 Ma – Present)

 Humans:
o Fossils of early hominins like Homo erectus and Neanderthals.
 Large Mammals:
o Mammoths, bison, and other megafauna.
 Corals and Mollusks:
o Abundant in marine environments.

Precambrian (4.6 Ga – 541 Ma)

 Igneous Rocks:
o Early Earth was dominated by volcanic activity, with basalts and andesites
forming from the cooling of molten rock. The first granites and other continental
rocks began to form as the Earth cooled.
o Greenstone belts (metamorphosed volcanic rocks) and komatiites (ultramafic
rocks formed by very hot mantle plumes) were common.
 Sedimentary Rocks:
o Banded Iron Formations (BIFs): Formed in shallow, oxygen-poor oceans from
the precipitation of iron minerals.
o Shales and sandstones: Deposited in early oceans and river systems.
 Metamorphic Rocks:
 o Schists, gneisses, and amphibolites formed due to high-pressure conditions
during early tectonic activity.
o Greenstones: Metamorphosed volcanic rocks found in ancient cratons.

Paleozoic Era (541–252 Ma)

Cambrian (541–485 Ma)

 Igneous Rocks:
o Granites and basalts continued to form, marking the differentiation of
continental and oceanic crust.
o Rhyolites and dolerites (intrusive equivalents of basalt) were also present.
 Sedimentary Rocks:
o Sandstones, shales, and limestones formed in shallow seas and continental
environments, often rich in early marine life fossils.
o Conglomerates: Early river systems began to deposit coarser sediments.
 Metamorphic Rocks:
o Slate and schist began to form from the compression of Cambrian sediments.
o Regional metamorphism led to the development of phyllites.

Ordovician to Silurian (485–419 Ma)

 Igneous Rocks:
o Continued formation of granites, basalts, and andesites from ongoing volcanic
activity.
 Sedimentary Rocks:
o Extensive limestone and shale deposits from shallow seas, with marine fossils
like brachiopods and trilobites.
o Sandstones in deltaic environments.
 Metamorphic Rocks:
o Development of schists, particularly phyllites, due to regional metamorphism of
sedimentary rocks.

Devonian to Permian (419–252 Ma)

 Igneous Rocks:
o Granites and rhyolites formed from continental magmatism.
o Basalts from oceanic spreading centers and volcanic activity.
 Sedimentary Rocks:
o Coal: Abundant in swamps and floodplains during the Carboniferous.
o Sandstones, shales, and limestones.
o Evaporites (gypsum and salt) formed in shallow, evaporative seas.
 Metamorphic Rocks:
o Formation of gneisses and schists during the regional metamorphism of ancient
sedimentary and volcanic rocks.
o Marbles formed from the metamorphism of limestone.
Mesozoic Era (252–66 Ma)

Triassic to Jurassic (252–145 Ma)

 Igneous Rocks:
o Granites, rhyolites, and basalts continued to form from tectonic activity, with
the opening of the Atlantic Ocean.
o Dolerites and andesites formed in volcanic arcs.
 Sedimentary Rocks:
o Sandstones and shales from river and deltaic environments.
o Limestones formed from marine environments, with abundant marine life.
o Coal continued to form in swampy, humid conditions.
 Metamorphic Rocks:
o Schists and gneisses formed as a result of ongoing tectonic collisions and
subduction zones.

Cretaceous (145–66 Ma)

 Igneous Rocks:
o Basalts and andesites continued from volcanic arcs and mid-ocean ridges.
o Granites formed in the continental crust.
 Sedimentary Rocks:
o Limestones and shales formed in shallow seas.
o Sandstones from river systems and deserts.
o Evaporites (gypsum, salt) formed in restricted marine environments.
 Metamorphic Rocks:
o Development of schists and gneisses due to tectonic activity and subduction
zones.

Cenozoic Era (66 Ma – Present)

Paleogene to Neogene (66–2.6 Ma)

 Igneous Rocks:
o Formation of granites, rhyolites, and basalts during continental rifting and
volcanic activity associated with plate tectonics.
o Basalt from oceanic hotspots like Hawaii and Iceland.
 Sedimentary Rocks:
o Sandstones, shales, and limestones from rivers, lakes, and shallow seas.
o Coal formation continued in swampy environments during the Paleogene.
o Clays and mudstones deposited in low-energy environments like lake beds.
 Metamorphic Rocks:
o Formation of gneisses, schists, and marbles due to tectonic processes like
continental collisions (e.g., the Himalayas).
o Quartzites from sandstones under high heat and pressure.

Quaternary (2.6 Ma – Present)

 Igneous Rocks:
 o Active volcanic regions produce basalts, andesites, and rhyolites (e.g., Iceland,
Indonesia).
 Sedimentary Rocks:
o Glacial deposits (till) and loess (wind-blown silt).
o Fluvial sediments (sandstones, mudstones) from river systems, particularly
during glacial-interglacial cycles.
 Metamorphic Rocks:
o Gneisses and schists formed during mountain-building events (e.g., the
Himalayas, Alps).
o Marbles from limestone under heat and pressure.

Summary of Rock Types by Geological Time Scale:

Geological Time Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks

Basalts, Komatiites, Banded Iron Formations, Schists, Gneisses,
Precambrian
Granites Sandstones Greenstones
Basalts, Granites, Sandstones, Shales,
Cambrian Slate, Schist
Rhyolites Limestones
Ordovician- Granites, Basalts, Limestones, Sandstones,
Phyllites, Schists
Silurian Andesites Shales
Granites, Basalts, Coal, Sandstones, Gneisses, Schists,
Devonian-Permian
Rhyolites Limestones, Shales Marbles
Triassic- Basalts, Granites, Sandstones, Limestones,
Schists, Gneisses
Cretaceous Andesites Coal, Shales
Paleogene- Basalts, Granites, Sandstones, Shales, Gneisses, Schists,
Quaternary Rhyolites Limestones, Coal Marbles