RAY OPTICS

RAY OPTICS

1. RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT As shown in the figure, the angle between reflected ray and
It is a well established fact that light is a wave. Although, a light incident ray is180 – 2i where i is the angle of incidence.
wave spreads as it moves away from its source, we can Maximum deviation is 180°, when angle of incident i is zero.
approximate its path as a straight line. Under this approximation, 2.3 Law of Reflection in Vector Form
we show light as a ray and the study of light as a ray is called ray
optics or geometrical optics. ˆ.
Say unit vector along incident ray =
1.1 Ray

û
The straight line path along which light travels in a homogeneous Unit vector along normal = ˆ
medium is called a ray.
Unit vector along reflected ray = ˆ

r̂
Then ˆ ˆ 2 ˆ. ˆ ˆ

r̂
û
û
n̂
n̂
2. REFLECTION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon in which a light ray is sent back into the same
medium from which it is coming, on interaction with a boundary,
is called reflection. The boundary can be a rigid surface or just an
interface between two media.
2.1 Law of Reflection
We have few angles to define before considering law of reflection Laws of reflection remain the same whether the reflected surface is
Angle of incidence : The angle which the incident ray plane or curved.
makes with normal at the point of incidence.
(i)
Angle of reflection : The angle which the reflected ray
makes with normal at the point of incidence.
(ii)

A reflected ray lies in the plane of incidence and has an angle of

reflection equal to the angle of incidence. i = r.
2.2 Deviation
2.4 Reflection by a plane surface
When a ray of light suffers reflection, its path is changed. The
angle between its direction after reflection and the direction Suppose a reflecting surface is rotated by an angle (say
before reflection is called the deviation. anticlockwise), keeping the incident ray fixed then the
reflect ray rotates by 2 along the same sense, i.e.,
anticlockwise.
 RAY OPTICS

Magnification of a plane mirror is unity.

The image is formed behind the mirror. It is erect. Virtual and
2.5 Reflection from plane mirror laterally inverted.
When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, its image can Image formation by two inclined mirrors, inclined at angle =
be seen behind the mirror. The distance of the object from the [0, 180°]
mirror is equal to the distance of the image from the mirror. The object and all its images will always lie on a circle, having
center at the point of intersection of the two inclined mirrors, in
a two dimensional view.

3. OTHER IMPORTANT INFORMATIONS

(i) When the object moves with speed u towards (or away)
from the plane mirror then image also moves toward (or
away) with speed u. But relative speed of image w.r.t.
(ii) object is 2u.
When mirror moves towards the stationary object with
speed
u, the image will move with speed 2u.
 RAY OPTICS

4. SPHERICAL MIRRORS Paraxial rays : Rays which are close to principal axis and make
small angles with it, i.e., they are nearly parallel to the axis, are
A spherical mirror is a part of sphere. If one of the surfaces is called paraxial rays. Our treatment of spherical mirrors will be
silvered, the other surface acts as the reflecting surface. When restricted to such rays which means we shall consider only
convex face is silvered, and the reflecting surface is concave, mirrors of small aperture. In diagrams, however, they will be
the mirror is called a concave mirror. When its concave face is made larger for clarity.
silvered and convex face is the reflecting face, the mirror is
Images formed by spherical mirrors
called a convex mirror.
Let us consider various cases depending on the nature of the
object and the image
(i) Real object and real image

(a)

Before the discussion of reflection by curved mirrors, you shall

carefully comprehend the meaning of following terms
(i) Centre of curvature : Centre of curvature is the centre of
sphere of which, the mirror is a part.
(ii) Radius of curvature : Radius of curvature is the radius of
sphere of which, the mirror is a part.
(b)
(iii) Pole of mirror : Pole is the geometric centre of the mirror.
(iv) Principal axis : Principal axis is the line passing through the
pole and centre of curvature.
Normal : Any line joining the mirror to its centre of curvature
(v)
is a normal. (ii) Real object and virtual image

(a)

(b)
 RAY OPTICS

object two of the following four rays are drawn passing through
the object. To construct the image of an extended object the
image of two end points is only drawn. The image of a point
object lying on principles axis is formed on the principal axis
(c) itself. The four rays are as under :

(d)

(iii) Virtual object and real image

Ray 1 : A ray through the centre of curvature which strikes the

(a)
mirror normally and is reflected back along the same path.
Ray 2 : A ray parallel to principal axis after reflection either
actually
passes through the principal focus F or appears to diverge from it.
Ray 3 : A ray passing through the principal focus F or a ray which
appears to converge at F is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
Ray 4 : A ray striking at pole P is reflected symmetrically back in
the opposite side.
(b) 4.1 Sign conventions
(i) All distances are measured from the pole. Distances
(ii) measured in the direction of incident rays are
taken as positive while in the direction opposite of
incident
(iv) Virtual object and virtual image rays are taken negative. Distances above the principle
(iii)
axis are taken positive and
below the principle axis are taken negative.

Ray diagrams
We shall consider the small objects and mirrors of small aperture
Same sign convention are also valid for lenses.
so that all rays are paraxial. To construct the image of a point

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RAY OPTICS

Position, size and nature of image formed by the spherical mirror

Use following sign while solving the problem

4.2 Relation between f and R

In figure, P is pole, C is centre of curvature and F is principal focus of a concave mirror of small aperture. Let a ray of light AB be
incident on the mirror in a direction parallel to the principal axis of the mirror. It gets reflected along. BF. Join CB. It is normal to
the mirror at B.
 RAY OPTICS

i.e., F is the centre of PC

1
PF = PC, Using sign conventions,

PF = – f and PC = –R.
Therefore, –f = –R/2 or f = R/2
i.e., focal length of a concave mirror is equal to half the
ABC = i, angle of incidence radius of curvature of the mirror.
CBF = r, angle of reflection
4.3 Deriving the Mirror Formula
Now BCF = ABC = i (alternate angles)
Mirror formula can be derived for any of the cases of image
In CBF, as i = r (law of reflection)
formation shown before. When we derive a formula, we
CF = FB keep in mind the sign conventions and substitute each
But FB = FP ( aperture is small) value with sign. This makes a formula suitable to be applied
CF = FP in any case. Here, we shall derive the formula for two cases.

Real object and real image Real object and virtual image
(concave mirror) (convex mirror)

PO = – u (distance of object) PO = – u (distance of object)

PC = – R (radius of curvature) PI = + v (distance of image)
PI = – v (distance of image) PC = + R (radius of curvature)
In OAC, = + ...(i) In OAC, = + ...(i)
In OAI, = + 2 ...(ii) In OAI, 2 = + ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii) From (i) and (ii)
2( – )= – 2( + )= +
+ =2 – = 2

AP AP AP AP AP AP
, , , ,
PI PO PC PI PO PC

AP AP 2AP AP AP 2AP
PI PO PC PI PO PC
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
v u R v u f v u R v u f
 RAY OPTICS

While deriving the above result, if we do not use sign convention, 1 1 1 –2 –2

results obtained will be different for different cases. From , v u f we have –vdv –udu = 0
4.4 Magnification
2
dv v
or
The linear magnification produced by a mirror is defined as du u

height of image 2
dv v 2
height of object or mL m
du u
I BB If we differentiate the mirror formula
m
O AA 1 1 1
v u f
with respect to time, we get
2 dv 2 du (as f = constant)
v . u 0
dt dt

dv v2 du
or 2u
dt ...(iii)
dt

As every part of mirror forms a complete image, if a part of the

mirror is obstructed, full image will be formed but intensity will be
PB = – v (distance of image) reduced.
PA = – u (distance of object)
5. REFRACTION OF LIGHT
BB BP
Now, A’AP ~ B’BP
AP
PB v v
m
PA u u

By mirror formula, 1
v
1
u
1
f
When a ray of light is incident on the boundary between two
v v v f v transparent media, a part of it passes into the second medium
1 m 1
u f f f with a change in direction.
1 1 1 u u f This phenomenon is called refraction.
Also, 1 m
v u f v f f u 5.1 Refractive Index
v f v f Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined by the ratio of
m
u f f u
c
speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in the medium ,
The magnification is negative when image is inverted and v
positive when image is erect. where c is speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of light in
If an object is placed with its length along the principal axis, the medium.
then so called longitudinal magnification becomes, 5.2 Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law)
A refracted ray lies in the plane of incidence and has an angle of
I v v dv 1sin i = 2 sin r. Where,
mL u22 u 1 (for small objects)
O 1 du refraction related to angle of incidence by
 RAY OPTICS

(i) i = angle of incidence in medium 1

(ii) 1 = refractive index of medium 1 (it is a dimensionless constant)
(iii) r = angle of refraction in medium 2
(iv) 2 = refractive index of medium 2
(v) If 1 = 2, then r = i. The light beam does not bend
If 1 > 2, then
normal r 2,
> i.then
Refraction bends the bends
light away
the from
(vi) towards1the
< normal r < i. Refraction light
If
(vii)
A medium having greater refractive index is called denser medium
while the other medium is called rarer medium.
We shall derive the expression for small angles (or you can say
that the object is being seen from top). By Snell’s law,
2 × sin i = 1 × sin r or, 2 × i = 1 × r

AB AB AB AB 2
i , r 2 1
R A 1
R R
The following possibilities may arise.
(i) When observer is in air and the object is in a medium of
refractive index ,

1 R
You have, A
R A

The three conditions required to find the unit vector along the
refracted ray = r (provided we are given the unit vector along
the incident ray = u, and the normal unit vector shown in the
(ii) When observer is in a medium of refractive index and
figure, from medium–1 towards medium–2) are
the object is in air, you have
1. |r| = 1
2. Snell’s law I
A R
3. u, n and r are coplanar STP = 0 = r . (u × n) R

cos i = (u . n) ; cos r = (r . n)

5.3 Single Refraction from a Plane Surface

Real and Apparent Depth
When an object placed in a medium is seen from another
medium, its apparent position is different from the actual
position. Consider the following figure.

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 RAY OPTICS

5.4 Shift due to a Glass Slab (Double Refraction AC t

from Plane Surfaces) Proof : AB
cosr cosr
(i) Normal Shift : Here, again two cases are possible. (as AC = t)

t
Now, d = AB sin (i – r) = cosr [sin i cos r – cos i sin r]

or d = t [sin i – cos i tan r] ...(i)

Further sini orsinr sin i

sinr

sini
tan r
2 sin2 i
An object is placed at O. Plane surface CD forms its image (virtual) Substituting in eq. (i), we get,
at This
1. I image acts as object for EF which finally forms the
image (virtual) at I. Distance OI is called the normal shift and its
cos i
value is, d 1 t sin i
2 in si 2

1
OI
1 t Hence Proved.
This can be proved as under : Exercise : Show that for small angles of incidence,
Let OA = x then AI 1 = x (Refraction from CD)
1
BI 1 = x + t d = ti .

BI1 t
BI x (Refraction from EF) Apparent distance from observer

t h1 h2 hn
OI = (AB + OA) – BI t x x = obser 1
......
2 n

1 5.5 Total Internal Reflection

1 t Hence Proved.
Consider an object placed in a denser medium 2 (having refractive
(ii) Lateral Shift : We have already discussed that ray MA is index
2) being seen from a rarer medium 1 (having refractive
parallel to ray BN. But the emergent ray is displaced index 1)
laterally by a distance d, which depends on , t and i and
its value is given by the relation,
cosi
t1
d sini
2 sin 2 i

Different rays from the object are shown. As we move from A

towards C, angle of incidence goes on increasing. Therefore, the
angle of refraction goes on increasing. At B, angle of refraction
approaches 90°. This is called critical condition. After B, angle
of
 RAY OPTICS

incidence increases, but angle of refraction cannot be greater

! r, in fig.
than 90°. Therefore after point B, refraction of light does not i ,
take place, only reflection of light takes place. This is called r , in fig. II
total internal reflection.
5.6 Refraction through Curved Surfaces 1 2 in fig. I and fig. II
Spherical Refracting Surfaces A spherical refracting surface is a 1 " 2 21 ,
part of a sphere. For example, the plane face of cylindrical glass
rod is curved to form a spherical shape (as shown in the figure).

As aperture is small # tan , # tan , # tan

1 tan " 2 tan 2 1 tan

"
1 2
...(i)
2 1

PO P P C
Applying sign convention i.e., u = – P’O
v = P’I and – P’I, in fig. I and fig. II respectively R = P’C
Substituting the above values in equation (i), we get

P Pole of refracting surface 2 2

1
R 1 (For both fig. I and fig. II)
C Centre of curvature v u
PC Radius of curvature 5.8 Linear Magnification for Spherical Refracting Surface
Principal axis : The line joining pole and centre of curvature. AB
m AB
5.7 Relation between Object Distance and Image
Distance Refraction at Spherical Surfaces sini 2
Now, 1

Consider the point object O placed in the medium with refractive sinr
index equal to 1. As 1sin i = 2sin r and for small aperture i, r 0

As i, r 0, i #sini # tani,r # sinr # tanr

tani AB / PA
i.e. paraxial rays 1i= 2r 2
or 2
1
tanr 1
A B /PA
 RAY OPTICS

AB PA/ towards the point, after refraction becomes parallel to

2
principal axis.
AB PA/ 1

v/ 2
Hence, m
u/ 1

6. THIN LENS
A thin lens is defined as a portion of transparent refracting
medium bounded by two surfaces. One of the two surfaces must
be curved. Following figures show a number of lenses formed by
different refracting surfaces.
A lens is one of the most familiar optical devices for a human
being. A lens is an optical system with two refracting surfaces.
The simplest lens has two spherical surfaces close enough
(b) 2
Second
: It is a principal
point on principal
focus Faxis,
together such that a ray moving parallel to principal axis, after
that we can neglect the distance between them (the thickness of refraction converges or diverges towards the point.
the lens). We call this a thin lens.

(vi) Focal Length : The distance between optical centre and

second principal focus is focal length. Assumptions and
sign conventions are same as these of mirrors with optical
centre C in place of pole P of the mirror.

6.2 Ray diagram

6.1 Terms Related with Lenses To construct the image of a small object perpendicular to the axis
of a lens, two of the following three rays are drawn from the top of
(i) Centre of curvature (C 1 and C)
2 :
The two bounding surfaces the object.
of a lens are each part of a complete sphere. The centre of the1. A ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes
sphere is the centre of curvature. through the principal focus or appears to diverge from it.
(ii) Radius of curvature (R1 and R2) : The radii of the curved
surfaces forming the lens are called radii of curvature.
(iii) Principal axis : The line joining the two centres of
curvature is called principal axis.
(iv) Optical centre : A point on the principal axis of the lens
from which a ray of light passes undeviated.
(v Principal foci : There are two principal foci of a lens.
) First principal focus F1 : It is a point on the principal axis,
such that a ray, diverging from the point or converging
(a
)
 RAY OPTICS

2. A ray through the optical centre P passes undeviated 3. A ray passing through the first focus F 1 become parallel
because the middle of the lens acts like a thin to the principal axis after refraction.
parallel- sided slab.

6.3 Image formation by Lens

Minimum distance between an object and it’s real image formed by a convex lens is 4f.
Maximum image distance for concave lens is it’s focal length.
RAY OPTICS

6.4 Lens maker’s formula and lens formula determine the values of R1 and R2 that are needed for a given
Consider an object O placed at a distance u from a convex lens as refractive index and a desired focal length f.
shown in figure. Let its image I after two refractions from spherical Combining eqs. (iii) and (v), we get
1 (positive)1 and R2 distance
be the (negative)ofbe formed at a
image
surfaces of radii R 1. Thisformed
image 1 1 1
...(vi)
distance v from the lens. Let v v u f
by refraction from the refracting surface of radius R Which is known as the lens formula. Following conclusions can
acts as an object for the second surface. Using, be drawn from eqs. (iv), (v) and (vi).
1. For a converging lens, R 1 is positive and R2 is negative.

1 1
Therefore,
R1 R in eq. (v) comes out a positive
2
quantity and if the lens is placed in air, ( – 1) is also a
positive quantity. Hence, the focal length f of a converging
lens comes out to be positive. For a diverging lens however,
R 1 is negative and R2 is positive and the focal length f
becomes negative.
2
1 2 1
twice, we have
v u R

2
or 1 2 1
...(i)
v1 u R1

1 2 1 2
and 1 ...(ii)
v v R2

Adding eqs. (i) and (ii) and then simplifying, we get

1 1 1 1
2
1 ...(iii)
v u R1 R
1 2
This expression relates the image distance v of the image formed
by a thin lens to the object distance u and to the thin lens properties
(index of refraction and radii of curvature). It is valid only for
paraxial raysThe
1 and R2. andfocal
onlylength
when the
f of lens
a thinthickness is much
lens is the imageless then
distance
R that corresponds to an object at infinity. So, putting u = $ and
2. Focal length of a mirror (f M = R/2) depends only upon the
v = f in the above equation, we have radius of curvature R while that of a lens [eq. (iv)] depends
1, 2, R1 and R2. Thus, if a lens and a mirror are immersed
onsome liquid, the focal length of lens would change while
in
1 1 that of the mirror will remain unchanged.
2 1
1 ...(iv)
f 1
R1 R2
3. Suppose 2 < 1 in eq. (iv), i.e., refractive index of the
medium (in which lens is placed) is more than the refractive
If the refractive index of the material of the lens is and it is placed
in air, 2 = and 1 = 1 so that eq. (iv) becomes
index of the material of the lens, then 2
% 1 becomes a
1 1 1
1 ...(v)
f R1 negative quantity, i.e., the lens changes its behaviour. A
R2
converging lens behaves as a diverging lens and vice-
This is called the lens maker’s formula because it can be used to versa. An air bubble in water seems as a convex lens but
 RAY OPTICS

behaves as a concave (diverging) lens. The shorter the focal length of a lens (or a mirror) the more it
converges or diverges light. As shown in the figure,
f1 < f2
and hence the power P1 > P2, as bending of light in case 1 is more
than that of case 2. For a lens,

1
P (in dioptre) = and for a mirror,
f metre
6.5 Magnification
The lateral, transverse of linear magnification m produced by a lens 1
is defined by, P (in dioptre) =
f metre
height of image I
m Following table gives the sign of P and f for different type of lens
height of object O
and mirror.
A real image II’ of an object OO’ formed by a convex lens is shown 8. COMBINATION OF LENS
in figure.
height of image II v (i) For a system of lenses, the net power, net focal length and
height of object OO u magnification given as follows :
P = P1 + P2 + P3 ............,

1 1 1 1
...........,
F f1
1×f2m2
f3 × m3 × ............

m=m
(ii) When two lenses are placed co-axially at a distance d from
each other then equivalent focal length (F).

Substituting v and u with proper sign,

II I v I v
or m
OO O u O u

v
Thus, m
u
7. POWER OF AN OPTICAL INSTRUMENT
1 1 1 d
By optical power of an instrument (whether it is a lens, mirror or a and P = P1 + P2 – dP1P2
refractive surface) we mean the ability of the instrument to F f1 f2 f1f2
deviate the path of rays passing through it. If the instrument
converges the rays parallel to the principal axis its power is said
9. CUTTING OF LENS
positive and if it diverges the rays it is said a negative power.
(i) A symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal
parts. Intensity of image formed by each part will be
same as that of complete lens.
(ii) A symmetric lens is cut along principle axis in two equal
parts. Intensity of image formed by each part will be less
compared as that of complete lens. (aperture of each part

is 1/ 2 times that of complete lens)

 RAY OPTICS

A + MPN = 180° ...(i)

In triangle MNP, r 1 + r2 + MPN = 180° .. .( ii )
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
r1 + r2 = A .. .( ii i)

11.1Deviation

Deviation & means angle between incident ray and emergent ray.
In reflection, & = 180 – 2i = 180 – 2r
in refraction, & = |i – r|

10. SILVERING OF LENS

On silvering the surface of the lens it behaves as a mirror. The

1 2 1
focal length of the silvered lens is where
F f1 fm In prism a ray of light gets refracted twice one at M and
f1 other at N. At M its deviation is i 1 – r1 and at N it is i2 – r2.
m==focal
focallength
lengthof
oflens from
mirror which
from refraction
which takes
reflection place
takes (twice)
place. These two deviations are added. So the net deviation is,
f
& = (i1 – r1) + (i2 – r2) = (i1 + i2) – (r1 + r2) = (i1 + i2) – A
11. PRISM
Thus, & = (i 1 + i2) – A ...(iv)
A prism has two plane surfaces AB and AC inclined to each other
as shown in figure. A is called the angle of prism or refracting sini 1
angle. (i) If A and i1 are small : , therefore, r1 will also be
sinr 1
small. Hence, since sine of a small angle is nearly equal to
the angle is radians, we have, i1 = r1
Also, A = r 1 + r2 and so if A and r1 are small r2 and i2 will

also be small. From sini

2, we can say, i2 = r 2
sin r2

Substituting these values in eq. (iv), we have

& = ( r 1 + r2) – A = (r1 + r2) – A = A – A
or & = ( – 1) A ...(v)
(ii) Minimum deviation : It is found that the angle of deviation
& of
1 varies withincident
the ray the angle of incidence i
The importance of the prism really depends on the fact that the
on the first refracting face of the prism. The variation is
angle of deviation suffered by light at the first refracting surface,
say AB (in 2-dimensional figure) is not cancelled out by the shown in figure and for one angle of incidence it has a
deviation at the second surface AC (as it is in a parallel glass minimum
min. At this value & the ray passes
value
slab), but is added to it. This is why it can be used in a symmetrically through the prism (a fact that can be proved
spectrometer, an instrument for analysing light into its theoretically as well as be shown experimentally), i.e., the
component colours. angle of emergence of the ray from the second face equals
General Formulae the angle of incidence of the ray on the first face.
In quadrilateral AMPN, AMP + ANP = 180°
 RAY OPTICS

Now, if minimum value of r 2 is greater than c then obviously all

values of r2 will be greater than c and TIR will take place under all
conditions. Thus, the condition of no emergence is, (r2)min > c or
A– c>
or
A ...(xii)
2

11.3Dispersion and deviation of light by a prism

White light is a superposition of waves with wavelengths
extneding throughout the visible spectrum. The speed of
light in vacuum is the same for all wavelengths, but the
i2 = i1 = i ...(vi) speed in a material substance is different for different
It therefore, follows that wavelengths. Therefore, the
r1 = r2 = r ...(vii) index of refraction of a material depends on wavelength. In most
materials the value of refractive index decreases with
From eqs. (iii) and (vii) increasing
wavelength.
r A
2
Further at, = m = (i + i) – A
A
or i m
...(viii)

sini
sinr
If a beam of white light, which contains all colours, is sent
A m
sin through the prism, it is separated into a spectrum of colours. The
sin 2 spreading of light into its colour components is called dispersion.
or A ...(ix)
2
11.4 Dispersive Power

11.2 Condition of no emergence When a beam of white light is passed through a prism of
transparent material light of different wavelengths are deviated
In this section we want to find the condition such that a ray of r, y and v are the deviations for red,
by different amounts. If
light entering the face AB does not come out of the face AC for yellow and violet components then average deviation is measured
y as yellow light falls in between red and violet. v – r is
any value of angle i1, i.e., TIR takes place on AC
bycalled angular dispersion. The dispersive power of a material is
r1 + r2 = A r2 = A – r1 defined as the ratio of angular dispersion to the average deviation
when a white beam of light is passed through it. It is denoted by
or 2)min = A – (r1)max ...(x)
(r . As we know
1 will be maximum when i1 is maximum and maximum
= ( – 1) A
Now, r 1 can be 90°.

value of i sin i 1max sin90

Hence,
sin r1 max sin r 1 max

1
sin r1max sin ) =
(r 1max

From eq. (x), (r)2min = A – c .. .( xi)

RAY OPTICS

This equation is valid when A and i are small. Suppose, a beam of

white light is passed through such a prism, the deviation of red,
yellow and violet light are
&r = (r – 1) A, y &
= (y – 1) A and &v = ( v – 1) A
The angular dispersion & isv – &r = ( v – r) A and the average deviation
is &y = (y – 1) A. Thus, the dispersive power of the medium is,

v Coma can be reduced by carefully working out the curvature

) r
...(i)
y function, or by blocking off the rays that create the ‘tail’ of the
comet shaped image.
12. MONOCHROMATIC ABERRATIONS Astigmatism : The shape of the image is different at
IN MIRRORS AND LENSES different
distances. Suppose a point object is placed off the optical
(INDEPENDENT OF WAVELENGTH) axis of a converging lens. Then, as a lateral screen is moved
Spherical
because ofaberration : all rays are not
the fact that along the axis, at one point, the image is almost a line. At
paraxial. The image of a point object formed by a spherical mirror other positions of the screen, the image changes into an
is a surface, whose 2-D view is called a ‘caustic curve’. When a different shapes at different locations of the screen.
real image is seen on a screen and the screen is moved forward/ Astigmatism can be reduced by using non-spherical
backward slightly, a disc image is formed which becomes smallest surfaces of revolution-such corrected lenses are called
at one position. The periphery of this smallest disc is called ‘the ‘anastigmatic’.
circle of least confusion’. Lenses too exhibit spherical aberration. Curvature : Consider a point object placed off the optical
We can reduce it by blocking non-paraxial rays but this reduces axis of a lens. We have seen that image is spread out
the brightness of the image. A ring shaped black paper is affixed laterally as well as longitudionally, with individual defects in
on the lens so that only those rays pass through the ‘hole’ in the each direction. However, the best image is obtained on a
ring, which are paraxial. Parabolic mirrors do not exhibit any curved surface and not on a plane screen. This
spherical aberration, hence all expensive reflecting telescopes use phenomenon is called ‘curvature’.
parabolic mirrors. Distortion : A square lateral object has images, which are
In lenses, spherical aberration can be reduced by using a either ‘barrel shaped’ or ‘curving in’ as shown. This is
combination of convex and concave lenses, which cancel out because the lateral magnification itself depends on the
each other’s aberrations. actual
distance of a portion of the object from the optical axis.
These different magnifications of different portions produce
this effect.

13. CHROMATIC ABERRATIONS IN LENSES

(DEPENDENT ON WAVELENGTH)
Coma : Consider a point object placed ‘off’ the optical axis. Most
These aberrations are absent in mirrors. In lenses, the focal
of the rays focus at a single point, but others form images at
length depends on the refractive index, which is different for
different points so that the overall image is like that of a ‘comet’
different colors. Hence, colored images are formed at different
() having a sharp ‘point’ image followed by a trail like that of a points if white light is emitted by the object. A proper
comet. combination of convex and concave lenses exactly cancel out
each others chromatic
 RAY OPTICS

aberration (for light having two wavelengths only) so that the Magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the
final image is not split into colored images. Such a ratio of the angles subtended by the image and the object
combination is called an ‘achromatic doublet’. The distance on the eye, when both are at the least distance of distinct
along the optical axis between images of violet and red is vision from the eye.
called ‘axial or longitudional chromatic aberration’ = LCA
(say): By definition, Magnifying power m ...(1)
For an incident parallel beam of white light, image distance =

focal (nV– n)/(n

R – 1) For small angles expessed in radians, tan
LCA = f )f. For two thin
length. From lens-makers formulae: lenses in contact, (1/F) = (1/f)
1+ tan and tan
(1/f). Therefore, dF = 0 )/f = –)/f achromatic lens. An
-df/f2 = dn/(n - 1) = ) = dispersive
1 power
1 2 of2 lens
achromatic ‘doublet’ or lens combination can be made by placing tan
two thin lenses in contact, with one converging and the other m tan ...(2)
diverging, made of different materials.
For lateral objects, images of different colors have different sizes AB
as magnification itself depends on the focal length, which is In ABC, tan
different for different colors. The difference in the size of lateral CB
images of violet and red colors is called ‘lateral chromatic
A 1B' AB
aberr ation’. In AB’C, tan
1
CB' CB'
Putting in (2), we get

AB CB' CB' v v
m ...(3)
CB AB CB uu
where, CB’ = – v, distance of image from the lens, CB = –u,
distance of object from the lens

1 1 1
From lens formula,
u v f
Multiply both sides by v

v v
1
u f
14. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
14.1 Simple Microscope or Magnifying Glass v
using (3), 1 m
f
A simple microscope is used for observing magnified
images of tiny objects. It consists of a converging lens of v
m 1
small focal length. A virtual, erect and magnified image of or
f
the object is formed at the least distance of distinct vision
from the eye held close to the lens. That is why the simple d
But v = – d, m 1
microscope is also called a magnifying glass. f

14.2 Compound Microscope

A compound microscope is an optical instrument used for

observing highly magnified images of tiny objects.
Construction : A compound microscope consists of two
converging lenses (or lens system); an objective lens O of
very small focal length and short aperture and an eye piece
E of moderate focal length and large aperture.
 Gitgoovind Academy
RAY OPTICS

where d is CB’’ = least distance of distinct vision, f is focal

2 e
length of eye lens. And

A'B' distanceof imageA'B'fromC

m0 1

AB distanceofobject ABfromC 1

CB'
1 v0
C 1B u0

Putting these values in (3), we get

v d v d
m 0 1 0 1 ...(4)
u0 e
f |u0| fe

Magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as As the object AB lies very close to F,0the focus of objective
the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the final lens, therefore,
image to the angle subtended at the eye by the object, u0= CB1 # CF =1 f0= fo0cal length of objective lens.
when both the final image and the object are situated at the As A’B’ is formed very close to eye lens whose focal length
least distance of distinct vision from the eye. is also short, therefore,
In figure, CB’’ = d. Imagine the object AB to be shifted to v = CB’# CC = L = length of microscope tube.
2 0 1 1 2
B’’ so that it is at a distance d from the eye. If A’’ C B’’
1
= and ACB’’ = , then by definition,
2
Putting in (4), we get
1 2

L d L d
Magnifying power, m m 1 f 1 ...(5)
...(1) f 0 |f|0
e
ef
For small angles expressed in radians, tan # 14.3 Astronomical Telescope
# tan and # tan An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument which is
used for observing distinct image of heavenly bodies like
tan
From (1), m ...(2) stars, planets etc.
tan It consists of two lenses (or lens systems), the objective
lens, which is of large focal length and large aperture and
In A’’B’’C, A' ' B ' '
2
tan the eye lens, which has a small focal length and small
C2 B ' '
aperture. The two lenses are mounted co-axially at the free
B ends of the two tubes.
AB
In AB’’C, tan 1
1 2
C 2B C B 2

Putting in (2), we get

B CB B B A'B'
m 2
CB
2
AB AB A'B' AB
m = me× m 0
B
where me , magnification produced by eye lens,
A' B

A' B' However, in astronomical telescope, final image being

and m0 , magnification produced by objective lens.
AB inverted with respect to the object does not matter, as
the astronomical objects are usually spherical.
d Magnifying Power of an astronomical telescope in normal
Now, me 1
fe adjustment is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended at
 RAY OPTICS

the eye by the final image to the angle subtended at the A’CB’ =
1
eye, by the object directly, when the final image and the Further, let A’’CB’’ = , where CB’’ = d
2 2
object both lie at infinite distance from the eye.
By definition, Magnifying power, m ...(4)
Magnifying power, m ...(1)
As angles and are small, therefore, # tan and # tan
As angles and are small, therefore, # tan and tan
From (4), m ...(5)
#
Frotamn (.1), m tan
tan
...(2) In A’B’C, A'B'
tan tan
2
C 2B'
A'B' A'B'
In A’B’C, tan
2
C2B' In A’B’C, tan 1B'
1 C

In A’B’C, tan A'B'

A'B' C B'1
1
C1B' Putting in (5), we get m
C 2B'
1B' A'B'
A'B' C 1B' C 1B'
Put in (2), m C f0
C 2B' A'B' C2B' m ...(6)
C 2B' ue

m
f0 where CB’
1
= f = focal length of objective lens
0
or fe ...(3) CB’ = – u, distance of A’B’, acting as the object for
2 e

where CB’ = f = focal length of objective lens. eye lens.

1 0

CB’ = –f =e focal length of eye lens. 1 1 1

2 Now, for eye lens,
Negative sign of m indicates that final image is inverted. v u f
Taking v =e –d, u = –u and f = + f, we
e get
Memory Note e

(i) In normal adjustment of telescope, distance between the 1 1 1

objective lens and eye lens = (f0 + f).
e d ue fe
(ii) Angular magnification produced by the telescope = * . 1
Clearly, visual angle is much larger as compared to . 1 1 1 1 fe
ue fe d fe d
Figure shows the course of rays in an astronomical
telescope, when the final image is formed at the least distance f f
of distinct vision (d) from the eye) Putting in (6), we get m 0 1 e
fe d

Discussion :
(i) As magnifying power is negative, the final image in an
astronomial telescope is inverted i.e. upside down and
left turned right.
(ii) As intermediate image is between the two lenses, cross
wire
(iii) (or measuring device) can be used.
In normal setting of telescope, final image is at inifiny.
Magnifying power of an astronomical telescope is defined Magnifying power is minimum.
as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the final
When final image is at least distance of distinct vision,
image at the least distance of distinct vision to the angle
subtended at the eye by the object at infinity, when seen magnifying power is maximum. Thus
f0 f fe
directly. (M.P.) min. = – ; (M.P.) max. = – 01 d
fe fe