2.

0 FUNCTIONS

In this chapter, we will define functions of one variable be able to determine the domain and the
range of particular functions. We will also consider composition of functions and how to find
the inverse of certain functions. We first discuss relations and how they relate to the Cartesian
coordinate system.

Given an ordered pair of real numbers, we can represent it on the rectangular coordinate system
or the Cartesian plane.

 ( x, y )

In many situations in Science and Mathematics in general, a correspondence exists between two
sets. The correspondence is often defined by a table, an equation or a graph, each of which can
be viewed from a mathematical perspective as a set of ordered pairs.

Definition 2.1.1

Any set of ordered pairs is called a Relation.

Example 2.1.1

Graph the following relations:

1. A  {(0, 0), (3,1), (4, 2), ( 3, 2)}

2. B  {( x,3) : 2  x  4, x  }
3. V  {(3, y ) : y  }.

Solutions

1. We simply plot the given points on the Cartesian plane.

 (3, 2)  (4, 2)

 ( 3,1)

 x
2. Since the y  coordinate is not changing, the graph is just a horizontal straight line from
x  2 to x  4 passing through y  3.

 3 

2 0 4 x

3. Notice that the x  coordinate is not changing but y can be any real number. Thus, the
graph is just a vertical straight line passing through x  3.
y

0 3 x

Relations can be described algebraically. For example, V in Example 2.1.1 can be

described as all points which satisfy the equation x  3.
Definition 2.1.2
The graph of the equation x  a is a vertical line through (a, 0).
The graph of the equation y  b is a horizontal line through (0, b).
Definition 2.1.3
The graph of an equation is the set of points which satisfy the equation. That is, a point
( x, y ) is on the graph of an equation if and only if x and y satisfy the equation.
Definition 2.1.4 ( x  intercept and y  intercept)
If ( x1 , 0) satisfies an equation, then the x  coordinate x1 at which the graph of the

equation meets the x  axis is called x  intercept (and y  0 ) of the given equation.
If (0, y1 ) satisfies an equation, then the y  coordinate y1 at which the graph of the

equation meets the y  axis is called y  intercept (and x  0 ) of the given equation.
 Example 2.1.2
1. Determine if (2, 1) and (3, 2) are on the graph x 2  y 3  1.
2. Find the x  and y  intercepts of the equation y  x  1.
Solutions
1. For (2, 1), we have

LHS  x 2  y 3  22  (1)3  3  1  RHS

Since the left-hand side (LHS) is not equal to the right-hand side (RHS), we conclude
that (2, 1) is not on x 2  y 3  1.
Similarly, for (3, 2) , we get

LHS  x 2  y 3  (3) 2  (2)3  1  RHS

 (3, 2) is on the graph 1.

2. When y  0, we have that

0  x  1  x  1.

Thus, (1, 0) satisfies y  x  1 and x  1 is the x  intercept.

Similarly, when x  0, y  0  1. Thus, (0,1) satisfies y  x  1 and y  1 is the y 
intercept.

Definition 2.1.5
1. The set of all possible independent values that the relation can take is called the domain
of a relation. It is the collection of all possible input. In other words, the set of all first
elements of ordered pairs ( x  coordinates) is the domain.
2. The set of all possible dependent values that the relation can produce from the domain
is called the range of a relation. It is the collection of all possible output. In other
words, the set of all second elements of ordered pairs ( y  coordinates) is the range.
Example 2.1.3

From Example 2.1.1, find the domain and the range of the given relations:

Solutions

1. DA  {0, 3, 4}; RA  {0,1, 2}

2. DB  {x : 2  x  4, x  }; RB  {3}

3. DV  {3}; RV  { y : y  }.

One-to-One Relation

Here one element of the domain is associated with one and only one element of the rang

For example the relation R  {( x, y ) : 3x  y  1, x, y  } is one-to-one.

One-to-Many Relation

This is a relation where one element in the domain is related to more than one elements in the
range.

For example the relation R  {( x, y) : x  y 2  0, x, y  } is one-to-many.

Many-to-One Relation

Here more than one elements of the domain can be associated with one particular element of
the range.
For example the relation R  {( x, y ) : y  x 2 , x, y  } is many-to-one.

Inverse Relation

The inverse of a relation R , denoted by R 1 , is the relation which consists of those ordered pairs
which when reversed belong to R. For example, if a relation is given by
R  {(0, 0), (3,1), (4, 2), ( 3, 2)} , then R 1  {(0, 0), (1, 3), (2, 4), (2, 3)} . Note that the domain

of R1 is the range of R and the range of R1 is the domain of R.

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONS

There are many ways to describe a function. A function can be pictured as an arrow diagram.

As demonstrated in the diagram above, each arrow associates an element of the domain to a
unique or single element in the range. Now, let us define a function in terms of a relation.

Definition 2.1.6

A relation in which each x  coordinate is matched with only one y  coordinate is said to be
describe y as a function of x. In other words, a function is a set of ordered pairs in which no
two ordered pairs have the same first coordinate and different second coordinates.
Example 2.1.4

Determine whether each of the following relations are functions:

2. R2  {(2,1), (1,3), (1, 4), (3, 1)}

3. R3  {(0,1), (1, 2), (2,3), (3, 4), (4,5)}

4. R4  {(0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 0), (3, 0), (4, 0)}

5. R5  3x  y  1

6. 4 x 2  y 2  9

Solutions
1. Not a function because "4" in the domain is not paired with any element in the
range.
2. Not a function because "1" in the domain has been matched with two elements
in the range.
3. It is a function.
4. Exercise
5. Exercise

6. Making y the subject of the formula, we get y   4 x 2  9. Thus, for each

value of x, there exists two values of y, one negative and the other one
positive. Hence, this is not a function.

Theorem 2.1.1 (The vertical line test)

A set of points in the plane represents y as a function of x if and only if no two points lie on
the same vertical line.
Example 2.1.5

Use the vertical line test to determine which ones of the following are functions:

1. y 2. y 3. y

x x x

Solutions
(1) and (3) fail the vertical line test, hence they are not functions. Only (2) passes the vertical
line test.
Notation
If x is an element of the domain of a function f , then f ( x ), which is read " f of x " or “the
value of f at x " , is the element in the range of f that corresponds to the domain element x.

Example 2.1.6

1. Given that f ( x)  x 2  1, evaluate

(i) f (5) (ii) f (3b 2 ) (iii) 2 f (1) (iv) f (a)  f (1).
2. Let

 x 2  x  1, x  5

f ( x)  3x  2, 5  x  4
 x 3  4 x, x4


Evaluate
(i) f (5) (ii) f ( 1) (iii) f (4) (iv) f ( 5).

Solutions

1. (i) f ( x)  x 2  1  f (5)  (5) 2  1  24.

(ii) f (3b2 )  (3b2 )2  1  9b4  1.
(iii) f (1)  (1)2  1  0   2 f (1)  2(0)  0.
(iv) f (a)  a 2  1 and f(1)=12  1  0  f (a)  f (1)  a 2  1  0  a 2  1.
2. (i) Since x  5 lies in the interval x  4, we use f ( x)  x3  4 x.
 f (5)  53  4(5)  125  20  105.
(ii) 1 lies in the interval 5  x  4. Thus, we use f ( x)  3x  2.
 f (1)  3(1)  2  5
 (iii) Since x  4 lies in the interval 5  x  4, we use f ( x)  3x  2.
 f (1)  3(4)  2  10
(iv) 1 lies in the interval x  5. Thus, we use f ( x)  x 2  x  1.
 f (5)  (5) 2  (5)  1  31.

Example 2.1.7
1. Determine the domain of each of the following functions:
4 2
(i) f ( x)  4  x 2 (ii) f ( x)  (iii) f ( x) 
6 x3 1
4x
x 3
2. Determine the range of each of the following functions:
1 2
(i) f ( x)  4  x 2 (ii) f ( x )  (iii) f ( x) 
x 4x
1
x 3

Solutions
1. We look for x values which will make the function “defined” or “valid”.

(i) Clearly, f is “valid” for all real values of x.

 Df  {x : x  }
(ii) Two things should be taken care of: (1) We want to get a real number from the
square root. (2) We want the denominator never to be zero. Therefore,
x  3  0  x  3
and
6 x3  0 6  x3
 36  x  3
 x  33
Therefore, Df  {x : 3  x  33 or x  33, x  }
(iii) We just need to make sure that the denominator is never zero.
4x
1  0  x  3  4 x  0  x  1.
x 3
 D f  {x : x  1, x  }
2. (i) We found that the set of all real numbers is the domain for f . Note that for any such
real number, x 2 is always positive. Thus, the greatest value of y  f ( x) is 4 and it
occurs when x  0. For all other values x  D f , y  f ( x)  4.
 R f  { y  f ( x) : y  4, y  }.
(ii) Clearly, the domain of f is the set of all real numbers except x  0. Note that for
any such real number, the output is a real number except zero. Thus,
R f  { y  f ( x) : y  0, y  } .
 Note that we can get the same result if we make x the subject of the formula and then
find the values of y that will make the formula “valid”.

1 1
i.e. y  x
x y

 R f  { y : y  0, y  }

2 2 2x  6
(iii) y  y 
4x x  3  4 x 3 x  3
1
x 3 x 3
 3 xy  3 y  2 x  6
 6  3 y  2 x  3 xy
 6  3 y  (2  3 y ) x
6  3y
x
2  3y

 R f  { y : 2  3 y  0, y  }  R f  { y : y   23 , y  }

One-to-one function

Recall that a function is a relation in which no two ordered pairs that have the same first
coordinate have different second coordinates. This means that one-to-one and many-to-one
relations are functions but one-to-many relation are not.
Theorem 2.1.2 (Horizontal line test for a one-to-one function)
If every horizontal line intersects the graph of a function at most once, then the graph is the
graph of a one-to-one function.
y y

y  x2 y  x3

0 x 0 x

Not one-to-one function one-to-one function

Theorem 2.1.2
If for a given function f we have that for all x1 , x2  D f

f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  x1  x2

then f is one-to-one.

Example 2.1.8

Determine whether the following functions are one-to-one:

(a) f ( x)  3 x  1 (b) f ( x)  2 x 2  3

Solution

(a) We take any x1 , x2  D f . Then,

f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  3x1  1  3x2  1

 3 x1  3 x2
 x1  x2

Hence, the function f ( x)  3 x  1 is one-to-one.

(b) For any x1 , x2  D f , f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  2x12  3  2x22  3

 2 x12  2 x2 2
 x12  x2 2
 x1   x2

Therefore, f ( x)  2 x 2  3 is not a one-to-one function.

Inverse function

An inverse function is a function that will “undo” anything that the original function does. For
example, “tying our shoes” could be called a function. The inverse function would be “untying
our shoes” because untying our shoes will “undo” the original function of tying our shoes.

NOTATION

If f 1 ( x) represents a function, we use the notation f 1 ( x), read “ f inverse of x ”, to denote

the inverse of f ( x).

NOTE: (1) Only one-to-one functions have an inverse.

 1
(2) f 1 ( x)  .
f ( x)

To find an inverse of a function:

 Determine if the function is one-to-one

 Change f ( x ) to y
 Make x the subject of the formula
 Interchange x and y
 Change y back to f 1 ( x).

Example 2.1.9

Find the inverse of the following functions:

1 5 3
(a) f ( x)  ( x  3)3 (b) f ( x)  (c) f ( x)  x
3x  5
3
6 4

Solutions
1
(a) Let y  f ( x). Then, y  ( x  3)3  y 3  x  3

1
 y3  3  x

 f 1 ( x)  x 3  3
1

1
(b) Let y  f ( x). Then, y   3x3 y  5 y  1
3x  5
3

5 y 1
x 3
3y

5x  1
 f 1 ( x)  3
3x

(c) Exercise.

Graph of 𝒇-1

Given the graph of the function f , the graph of its inverse f 1 can be obtained by reflecting
the graph of f using the line y  x as the mirror line.
Example 2.1.10
Using the graph of each of the following functions, sketch the graph of the inverse function:

(a) f ( x)  x 2 , x  0 (b) f ( x)  2 x  5

Solutions
1) y
y=f(x) y=x
y=f-1(x)

x
2) Exercise

2.2 COMBINING FUNCTIONS

Functions can be combined using usual operations to form new functions. For example,
functions can be added, subtracted, multiplies and divided (provided the denominator function
is not identically zero).
Theorem 2.2.1
If f and g are functions, then for every x that belongs to the domain of both f and we
have the following:

1)  f  g  ( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)
2)  f  g  ( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)
3)  f .g  ( x)  f ( x).g ( x)
 f  f ( x)
4)   ( x)  , g ( x)  0
g g ( x)

Definition 2.2.1
If f and g are functions, then the composite function, denoted by f g and read “ f
composed with g ”, is defined by

f g  ( x)  f  g ( x)  .

The domain of f g consists of the number x in the domain of g for which g ( x) lies in the
domain of f .
NOTE: If f 1 exists then, f  f 1  ( x)  x   f 1 f  ( x).

Example 2.2.1

1) If f ( x)  x and g ( x)  x  1, find
(a) domain and range of f and g .
(b) f g and g f .
(c) f f and g g .
(d) Domain and range of f g and g f .
2) Show that for the functions in Example 2.1.9, f  f 1  ( x)  x   f 1 f  ( x).

Solutions:

1) (a) D f   x : x  0, x  , R f   y : y  0, y  
Dg   x : x  , Rg   y : y  
(b) f g  ( x)  f  g ( x)   f ( x  1)  x  1

g f  ( x)  g  f ( x)   g  x  x 1

 Df g   x : x  1, x  , Rf g   y : y  0, y  
Dg f   x : x  0, x  , Rg f   y : y  1, y  
(c), (d) Exercise

(a) f ( x)  ( x  3)3 and f 1 ( x)  x 3  3. Then

1
2)

f 
f 1  ( x)  f  f 1 ( x)   f x 3  3  x 3  3  3  x   
1 1 3

and
1

f 1
f  ( x)  f 1
 f ( x)   f 1  x  33    x  33  3  3  x  3  3  x.
   

 f f 1  ( x)  x   f 1 f  ( x).

(b) Exercise
2.3 Even and odd functions

Definition 2.3.1

A function f is an even function if and only if f ( x)  f ( x) , and a function is odd if and only
if f ( x)   f ( x) . If both conditions fail, then a function is neither even nor odd.

Example 2.3.1

Verify whether each of the given function is even, odd or neither.

(i) f ( x)  x 4  2 x 2 (ii) f ( x)  x 3  2 x (iii) f ( x)  2 x  1

Solutions

(i) Using the conditions given above, let f ( x)  x 4  2 x 2 . Then,

f ( x)  ( x)4  2( x)2  f ( x)  x 4  2 x 2  f ( x)

Hence, f ( x)  f ( x) is satisfied. That means the function f ( x)  x 4  2 x 2 is an even

function.

(ii) Let f ( x)  x3  2 x . Then,

f ( x)  ( x)3  2( x)   x 3  2 x  [ x 3  2 x]   f ( x) .

That means the function f ( x)  x3  2 x is an odd function.

(iii) Let f ( x)  2 x  1 . Then,

f ( x)  2( x)  1  2 x  1   f ( x) or  f ( x)

Hence, f ( x)  2 x  1 is neither even nor odd.

THE END!