Chapter 5

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

13Marks
Block Diagram Of Transducers

Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each

other i.e. the sensing element and transduction element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device
producing measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to suitable
electrical form.
Introduction

• Defination: Basically transducer is defined as a device, which converts

energy or information from one form to another.
• These are widely used in measurement work because not all quantities that
need to be measured can be displayed as easily as others.
• For example, the common mercury thermometer converts variations in
temperature into variations in the length of a column of mercury. Since the
variation in the length of the mercury column is rather simple to measure,
the mercury thermometer becomes a convenient device for measuring
temperature.
Introduction(cont’d)

• On the other hand, the actual temperature variation is not as easy to display
directly. Another example is manometer, which detects pressure and
indicates it directly on a scale calibrated in actual units of pressure.
• Thus the transducer is a device, which provides a usable output in
response to specific input measured, which may be physical or
mechanical quantity, property or condition.
• The transducer may be mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical,
chemical, acoustic, thermal, nuclear, or a combination of any two or
more of these.
Classification of transducers

• On the basis of transduction form used.

• As primary and secondary transducers.
• As passive and active tranducers.
• As analog and digital transducers.
• As transducers and inverse transducers
• Mechanical and Electrical transducers
On The Basis Of Transduction
Form Used

• Resistive transducers.
• Capacitive transducers.
• Inductive transducers.
• Voltage and current generating transducers.
Resistive transducers.

• Resistive transducer is also called as Variable resistance

transducer. Resistive transducers are those devices in which
resistance varies due to effect of physical quantity to be
measured. When a physical quantity such as temperature,
pressure, displacement, vibration, force etc. make changes in
resistance or resistivity of the sensor material, these sensors
are termed as resistive sensors.
• Resistive transducer acts like primary transducer and as well
as secondary transducer. The change in resistance can be
detected and measured by bridge circuits and can be calibrated
in unit of measurement of process variable.
Resistive Transducers types-

• There are various type of resistive transducer used for

industrial application. Some examples of resistive transducers
are shown below
Potentiometer – converts displacement into change in resistance

Resistance thermometer – detects change in temperature and convert into change in

(RTD) resistance

– detects change in temperature and convert into change in

Thermistor
resistance

Strain Gauge – convert force, pressure into change in resistance

– used to detect liquid or gas velocity by measuring the heat loss

Hot wire meter of wire placed in the fluid stream by detecting change in
resistance.

Light dependant resistor

– detect light intensity and results as change in resistance
(LDR)

– detect humidity present in its surrounding atmosphere and

Resistance Hygrometer
convert in form of change in resistance
Strain Gauge

Strain gauge: it is an electrical conductor whose resistance

changes as it is strained.

Structure of Strain Gauges: There are many types of strain

gauges. Among them, a universal strain gage has a structure such
that a grid-shaped sensing element of thin metallic resistive foil
(3 to 6μm thick) is put on a base of thin plastic film (15 to 16μm
thick) and is laminated with a thin film.
 Strain Gauge: Motion, Stress,

Strain gauge is used to measure deflection, stress, pressure, etc. The resistance of the sensing element
changes with applied strain. A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure small changes in the strain gauge
resistance
Principle of Strain Gauges

• The strain gauge is tightly bonded to a measuring object so

that the sensing element (metallic resistive foil) may elongate
or contract according to the strain borne by the measuring
object.
• When bearing mechanical elongation or contraction, most
metals undergo a change in electric resistance.
• The strain gauge applies this principle to strain measurement
through the resistance change. Generally, the sensing element
of the strain gauge is made of a copper-nickel alloy foil.
The alloy foil has a rate of resistance change proportional to
strain with a certain constant.
Capacitive transducers.

• Capacitive transducer is also called as Variable capacitance

transducer. When a physical quantity such as temperature,
pressure, displacement, vibration, force etc. make changes in
capacitance or relative capacitance for the sensor, these
sensors are termed as capacitive sensor or variable capacitance
transducers.
Applications of Capacitive Transducers

Level for conducting liquid/ fluid based on change in distance between

Level Measurement
parallel plate capacitor
Level for Non-conducting liquid/ fluid based on change in dielectric between
Level Measurement
parallel plate capacitor
Thickness Used for thickness measurement of dielectric material with the help of using
measurement change in distance between plates principle
Linear Displacement measurement either by changing plate distance, or change in
Displacement effective cross section area between plate/ cylindrical core, or by causing
measurement movement of dielectric material core between plate
By converting force into displacement using primary transducer and then
Displacement measurement either by changing plate distance, or change in
Force measurement
effective cross section area between plate, or by causing movement of
dielectric material core between plate
Used as diaphragm capsule with a fixed plate and a pressure sensing
Pressure diaphragm as movable plate filled with dielectric such as silicon or glycerin
measurement fluid. Based on change in distance between plates. Or by converting pressure
into displacement using primary transducers and measure displacement.
Angular
displacement/ Angular displacement/ rotary motion Measurement by changing effecting
rotary motion area between plates of semi circular capacitor.
Measurement
By converting force into rotary motion using primary transducer and
Torque
perform Angular displacement/ rotary motion Measurement by changing
measurement
effecting area between plates of semi circular capacitor.
Inductive transducers.

• Inductive transducer is also called as Variable Inductance

transducer. When a physical quantity to be measured, such as
motion, displacement, vibration, acceleration, force, speed etc.
make changes in inductance properties of the sensor coil, or
magnetic properties of core material or electric properties of
magnetic circuits, these sensors or transducers are termed as
inductive/ magnetic sensors and fall under category of
inductive transducers.”
• Mostly, the change in inductive properties as an effect of physical quantity to be measured
results as change in electrical properties such as change in AC voltage (or EMF) and or AC
current which can be measured directly and hence can be calibrated in terms of unit of
measurement for a range. Another output form can be pulse signals in which number of pulses
counted, or pulse frequency change is detected. Thus it can be used object counting
application and for speed measurement. There are both types self generating and passive type
of inductive transducers exist. Various inductive transducers (which are passive transducer)
are shown as follows-
• Self inductance based Transducer
– Mutual inductance based Transducer
– Variable reluctance type Transducer
– Differential transformer –LVDT & RVDT
• Other Self generating type inductance transducers are as follows-
– Moving Coil generator
– Electro-magnetic type
– Electro-dynamic type
– Eddy current type
LVDT(Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

• Linear Variable Differential Transformer is known by the

abbreviation LVDT. It is the inductive transducer that
transforms linear motion into electrical signals most frequently
utilised.
• The Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT) is
another name for LVDTs, which are also known as inductive
transducers that measure linear displacement from the polarity
and magnitude of the net induced electromotive force (emf).
LVDT, in its simplest form, is a position sensor that can detect
and translate linear motion or vibrations into electrical signals
or a variable electrical current in the circuit.
Construction of LVDT
Continued..

According to Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic
induction, which states that
“the net induced emf in the
circuit is directly
proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux
across the circuit, and the
magnetic flux of the coil
wounded with wires can be
changed by moving a bar
magnet through the coil,”
the operation of an LVDT
is based on this principle.
Primary And Secondary Transducers

Primary and Secondary

Transducers: Transducers, on the
basis of methods of applications,
may be classified into primary
and secondary transducers. When
the input signal is directly sensed
by the transducer and physical
phenomenon is converted into the
electrical form directly then such
a transducer is called the primary
transducer.
Example:
• LVDT
• Bourdon tube
Passive And Active Transducers

If transducers derive the power require for transduction from an auxiliary

power source, then this kind of transducer are known as passive transducer.
Example
• LVDT
• RVDT

When there is no need for any source then these type of transducers are active
transducers.
Example
• Thermocouple
• Piezoelectric crystal
Classification of Active transducers
Classification of Passive Transducers
Analog And Digital Transducers

• Analog transducers convert the non-electric (physical

quantity) into an analog output which is a continuous function
of time.
Example:
– Strain gauge
– LVDT
– Thermocouple
• Whereas digital transducers convert the physical quantity into
the form of pulse.
Example:
– Digital Tachometer
– Shaft encoders
Transducers And Inverse Transducers

• A transducer can be broadly defined as a device which

converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
• While inverse transducers convert a electrical quantity into
non electrical quantity.
Example:
• Analog ammeter
• voltmeter
Mechanical and Electrical transducers

• Mechanical transducers are simple and rugged in construction,

cheaper in cost, accurate and operate without external power
supplies but are not advantageous for many of the modern
scientific experiments and process control instrumentation
owing to their poor frequency response, requirement of large
forces to overcome mechanical friction, in compatibility when
remote control or indication is required, and a lot of other
limitations. All these drawbacks have been overcome with the
introduction of electrical transducers.
Electrical Transducers

• Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical such as temperature,

pressure, displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed etc., but these quantities
cannot be measured directly. Hence such quantities are required to be
sensed and changed into some other form for easy measurement.
• Electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance. inductance and
capacitance etc. can be conveniently measured, transferred and stored, and
therefore, for measurement of non-electrical quantities these are to be
converted into electrical quantities first and then measured.
Electrical Transducers(cont’d)

• The function of converting non-electrical quantity into electrical one is

accomplished by a device called the electrical transducer. Basically an
electrical transducer is a sensing device by which a physical, mechanical or
optical quantity to be measured is transformed directly, with a suitable
mechanism, into an electrical signal (current, voltage or frequency). The
production of these signals is based upon electrical effects which may be
resistive, inductive, capacitive etc in nature.
• The input versus output energy relationship takes a definite reproducible
function. The output to input and the output to time behavior is predictable
to a known degree of accuracy, sensitivity and response, within the
specified environmental conditions.
Selection Of Transducers

• In a measurement system the transducer (or a combination of transducers)

is the input element with the critical function of transforming some
physical quantity to a proportional electrical signal. So selection of an
appropriate transducer is most important for having accurate results.
• The first step in the selection procedure is to clearly define the nature of
quantity under measurement (measurand) and know the range of
magnitudes and frequencies that the measurand is expected to exhibit. Next
step will be to examine the available transducer principles for measurement
of desired quantity. The type of transducer selected must be compatible
with the type and range of the quantity to be measured and the output
device.
Selection Of Transducers

 The points to be considered in determining a transducer suitable for a

specific measurement are as follows:

 Range. The range of the transducer should be large enough to encompass all
the expected magnitudes of the measurand.
 Sensitivity. The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of
measured input in order to yield meaningful data.
 Electrical Output Characteristics. The electrical characteristics-the output
impedance, the frequency response, and the response time of the transducer
output signal should be compatible with the recording device and the rest of
the measuring system equipment.
Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)

• Physical Environment. The transducer selected should be able to withstand

the environmental conditions to which it is likely to be subjected while
carrying out measurements and tests.
• Such parameters are temperature, acceleration, shock and vibration,
moisture, and corrosive chemicals might damage some transducers but not
others.
• Errors. The errors inherent in the operation of the transducer itself, or those
errors caused by environmental conditions of the measurement, should be
small enough or controllable enough that they allow meaningful data to be
taken.
• However the total measurement error in a transducer-activated system may
be reduced to fall within the required accuracy range by adopting the
following techniques.
Chapter 3

SENSORS
Introduction

A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified

measurand

• A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal suitable

for processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)
• Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical phenomena
into an electrical signal
• Active element of a sensor is called a transducer
Commonly Measured Quantities

Stimulus Quantity

Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave

Velocity

Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)

Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude, phase,

polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity

Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,

Permeability

Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption

Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity

Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,

Pressure, Torque
Types of sensors

1. Contact sensor detect the change in position, acceleration,

force, torque etc.
When direct physical contact is used with a sensor, the sensor is
characterized as being a contact sensor. A simple thermometer
that is immersed in a swimming pool to measure the water’s
temperature or a float that sits inside of a tank and used to drive a
gauge that shows the level of fluid in the tank are both examples
of contact sensors. The sensing device in each case needs to be in
physical contact with the object or substance being measured in
order for that sensor to function.
2. Non-contacting sensor detect presence, distance, etc.
Non-contact sensors refer to ones that have the ability to function
without the need to physically touch the object being monitored.
For example, rather than using an oral thermometer to measure a
patient’s temperature (which requires the thermometer to be
physically placed in the patient’s mouth so that the thermometer
bulb can make contact), a nurse or physician may employ an
infrared thermometer. This type of thermometer is an example of
non-contact sensor technology that uses infrared radiation to
establish a temperature reading – thus avoiding the need for
direct physical contact to occur.
Temperature Sensors

• Thermistor • Thermocouple: Seebeck effect to

transform a temperature difference
Therm istor to a voltage difference

Thermal Resistor
 Capacitance Sensor

• Recall, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is:

 r 0 A
C
d
– A: overlapping area of plates (m2)
– d: distance between the two plates of the capacitor (m)
– :0 : permittivity of air or free space 8.85pF/m

–  r :dielectric constant
•The following variations can be utilized to make capacitance-based sensors.
–Change distance between the parallel electrodes.
–Change the overlapping area of the parallel electrodes.
–Change the dielectric constant.
 Light Sensor

• Light sensors are used in cameras, infrared

detectors, and ambient lighting applications
• Sensor is composed of photoconductor such
as a photoresistor, photodiode, or
phototransistor.
• Light sensitive variable resistors.
• Its resistance depends on the intensity of light
incident upon it.
– Under dark condition, resistance is quite
high (M: called dark resistance).
– Under bright condition, resistance is
lowered (few hundred ).
I
p n

+ V -
 Photoresisotrs

•Photoresisotrs exhibit a nonlinear characteristics for incident optical

illumination versus the resulting resistance.

104
R 103
102
101

101 102 103 104

Relative illumination (P)

Symbol
DISPLACEMENT,POSITION & PROXIMITY

• Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of

the amount by which some object has been moved.

• Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the

position of some object in relation to some reference point.

• Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and are used to

determine when an object has moved to within some particular
critical distance of the sensor. They are essentially devices
which give on/off outputs.
 Motion Sensors

• Monitor location of various parts in a system

– absolute/relative position
– angular/relative displacement
– proximity
– acceleration
• Principle of operation
– Magnetic, resistive, capacitance, inductive, eddy current, etc. Optoisolator
Primary Secondary

LVDT Displacement Sensor

Potentiometer Sensor

• Potentiometer is one of the common sensors for position measurements.

• It relates the change in position (linear or rotary) into the change in
resistance.
• The resistance change is then converted to a proportional voltage change in
the electrical circuit of the sensor.

Potentiometer
Proximity sensor

• A proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor that detects the

presence of an object (often referred to as the “target”) when
the target enters the sensor’s field.
• Depending on the type of proximity sensor, sound, light,
infrared radiation (IR), or electromagnetic fields may be
utilized by the sensor to detect a target.
• Proximity sensors are used in phones, recycling plants, self-
driving cars, anti-aircraft systems, and assembly lines.
• There are many types of proximity sensors, and each senses
targets in distinct ways. The two most commonly used
proximity sensors are the inductive proximity sensor and the
capacitive proximity sensor.
Proximity sensors
Pneumatic Sensor

• Pneumatic sensors are displacement sensors and use

compressed air to measure the displacement of objects.
Whenever the body whose displacement we want to measure
changes its position will result in the change in air pressure.
• These sensors are used to work for short range applications
ranging from 3 mm to 12 mm.
Pneumatic Sensor

• If we look at the working of pneumatic sensor, we have low

pressure air escape from the port in front of sensor. If we don’t
have any object in front of sensor, this air will escape and
reduce air pressure in the nearby output port. But if we have an
object in the path of compressed air then air will not escape
and increase air pressure at sensor output port.
Pyroelectric Sensor

• Pyroelectric (from the Greek pyr, fire, and electricity)

materials, e.g. lithium tantalate, are crystalline materials which
generate charge in response to heat flow.
• The pyroelectric sensor thus behaves as a charge generator
which generates charge when there is a change in its
temperature as a result of the incidence of infrared radiation.
• This charge leaks away through the measurement circuit until
the charge on the crystal once again is balanced by the charge
on the electrodes
Choosing a Sensor