Discrete Mathematics

For Class Room Purpose only

Shree 1|
Chapter Boolean algebra

Def: Boolean algebra:

A complemented distributive lattice is known as Boolean Algebra. It is denoted by
 B,*, , ', O,1 .
Remark: By definition of Boolean algebra, every element ‘a’ has a unique complement.

Properties of Boolean algebra: -

Let  B,*, , ', O,1 is a Boolean algebra, since
1. B is a lattice then for a, b, c  B
a. a  b  b  a, a  b  b  a (Commutative property)
b. a  a  a, aa  a (Idempotent property)
c. a  (b  c )  ( a  b )  c , a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c
(Associative property)
d. a  (a  b)  a, a  (a  b)  a (Absorption property)
2. B is a distributive lattice then a, b, c  B
a. a  (b  c )  ( a  b )  ( a  c ) ,
b. a  (b  c )  (a  b)  (a  c)
c. (a  b)  (b  c )  (c  a)  (a  b)  (b  c)  (c  a)
d. a  b  a  c, and a  b  a  c, then b = c
3. B is a bounded lattice then a  B
a. O  a 1
b. a  O  O, aO  a
c. a  1  a, a 1  1
4. B is complemented lattice then a, b  B
a. a  a '  O, a  a'  1
b. O’ = 1, 1’ = O
c.  a  b  '  a ' b ',  a  b  '  a ' b '
5. B is a Partial ordered then a, b  B
a. a  b  glb a, b , a  b  l u b a, b ,
b. a  b  a b  a  a  b  b
c. a  b  b '  a '  a  b'  O  a ' b  1

Example: Consider two element Boolean algebra B = {O, 1}, then  B,*, , ', O,1 is a
Boolean algebra where * ,  and ' are defined as follows:

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

Clearly B satisfies all the conditions to be a Boolean algebra. Hence B is two point Boolean
algebra.

 O 1 x x'  O 1
O O O O 1 O O 1
1 O 1 1 O 1 1 1

Example: Let S6 = {1, 2, 3, 6}, Show that  S6 , , , ', O,1 is a Boolean algebra where GLB
{a, b}= gcd of a and b, LUB {a, b} = lcm of a and b.

Solution: Clearly,  S6 , D  is a POSET. Now  and  are defined as follows:

 1 2 3 6  1 2 3 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 6
2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 6 6
3 1 1 3 3 3 3 6 3 6
6 1 2 3 6 6 6 6 6 6
From the table  S6 , D  is a lattice. Least element = 1, Greatest element = 6
Also 1'  6 6 '  1 2 '  3 3'  2
Thus it is complemented also and every element has a unique complement. It is distributive
also.
Hence  S6 , , , ', O,1 is a complemented distributive lattice (Boolean algebra).

Example: Show that there is no Boolean algebra with three elements.

Solution: Consider the set B = {a, b, c} is a Boolean algebra.
Clearly, O  B & 1  B , So let us assume that a = O and c = 1.
Thus a and c are complement of each other.
Now since B is a Boolean algebra then complement of every element exists and it is unique.
Thus complement of b is itself.
Hence
b b  O
b  a
&
bb 1
b  c

That’s contradiction to our supposition. Thus our supposition is wrong and, hence there is
no Boolean algebra with three elements.

Def: Sub – Boolean algebra:

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

Let  B, , , ', O,1 be a Boolean algebra and S  B , then S is said to be Sub Boolean
algebra of B if S itself is a Boolean algebra under the same operations  ,  and ' .

Example: Prove that {O, a, a’, 1} is a sub Boolean algebra for every member a of B.
Solution:

Remark: To check whether S is a Sub Boolean algebra or not, we don’t need to verify
closureness for all operations. If we can show that S is closed under , ' then other
operations will automatically satisfied.

Clearly,
Let a  S and b  S
 a ' S & b' S
 a ' b '  S (as S is closed under  )
 a  b ' S
   a  b  ' '  S (as S is closed under ' )
 a  b  S
Also, a  S  a '  S
a  a ' S
0  S
And O  S  O '  1  S
Thus S is closed under all operations.

Example: Show that S = {1, 5, 10, 70} is not a sub Boolean algebra. For  D70 , , , ', O,1
Solution: Clearly, S is closed under  using following table.
 1 5 10 70
1 1 1 1 1
5 1 5 5 5
10 1 5 10 10
70 1 5 10 70

But, 1'  70 and 70 '  1 . Also 5'  14  S .

Hence S is not closed under the operation complement.
Thus S is not a sub – Boolean algebra of D70.

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

Def: Direct Product of Two Boolean algebra:

Let  B1 , 1 , 1 , ', O1 ,11  and  B2 , 2 ,  2 ,'', O2 ,12  be any two Boolean algebra, then
direct product of two Boolean algebra is denoted and defined as follows:
 B1  B2 , 3 , 3 ,''', O3 ,13  where   a1 , b1  ,  a2 , b2   B1  B2 if
a.  a1 , b1  3  a2 , b2    a1 1 a2 , b1 2 b2   B1  B2
b.  a1 , b1  3  a2 , b2    a1 1 a2 , b1  2 b2   B1  B2
c.  a1 , b1  '''   a1 ', b1 ''  B1  B2
d. O3   O1 , O2   B1  B2
e. 13  11 ,12   B1  B2
Clearly, direct product of two Boolean algebra is again a Boolean algebra.

Def: Boolean Homomorphism:

Let  B,*, , ', O,1 and  P  X  , , , ', , X  be any two Boolean algebras, the
function f : B  P is said to be Boolean homomorphism if it satisfies,
1. f  a  b  f  a   f b
2. f  a  b   f  a   f b 
3. f  a '  f  a  '
4. f O  
5. f 1  X
Def: Boolean Isomorphism:
Let  B,*, , ', O,1 and  P  X  , , , , , X  be any two Boolean algebras, the
function f : B  P is said to be Boolean isomorphism if it is homomorphism, one one and
onto.

Def: Boolean Endomorphism:

Let  B,*, , ', O,1 any Boolean algebra, the function f : B  B is said to be
Boolean endomorphism if it is homomorphism.

Def: Boolean Automorphism:

Let  B,*, , ', O,1 any Boolean algebra, the function f : B  B is said to be
Boolean Automorphism if it is homomorphism, one one and onto.

Def: Join Irreducible elements:

Let  L, ,   be any lattice then an element a  L is said to be join irreducible if it
can not be expressed as join of two distinct elements of L

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

i.e. if a  a1  a2  a  a1 or a  a2
Remark: They are known as Atoms in case of Boolean algebra.
The elements other than O and atoms of the Boolean algebra are not join irreducible.

Def: Meet Irreducible elements:

Let  L, ,   be any lattice then an element a  L is said to be meet irreducible if it
can not be expressed as meet of two distinct elements of L
i.e. if a  a1  a2  a  a1 or a  a2
Remark: They are known as Anti -Atoms in case of Boolean algebra.
The elements other than 1 and anti-atoms of the Boolean algebra are not meet irreducible.

Example: Find out join irreducible elements from the following figure. Also find meet
irreducible elements of both the lattices.

Remark: In case of Boolean algebra, atoms are also known as Minterms, and anti – atoms
are also known as Maxterms.

Stone’s Representation Theorem

Theorem: Any Boolean algebra is isomorphic to a power set Boolean algebra
 P  X  , , , , , X  for some set S.
Remark: If number of elements which are atoms in a Boolean algebra is n then Boolean
algebra will contains 2n elements.
One can use notation  in place of  and  in place of  .

Some Examples:
1. In any Boolean algebra prove that a  b  ab ' a ' b  O
Solution:
Part: 1 Suppose a  b is given
Thus,

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

LHS  ab ' a ' b

 aa ' a ' a
 OO
 O  RHS
Hence ab ' a ' b  O
Part: 2 Now let ab ' a ' b  O is given.
Thus
ab ' a ' b  O
  ab ' a ' b  b  Ob
  ab ' b  a ' bb   O
  a0  a ' b   O
 0  a 'b  O
 a ' b  O           (1)
Also
ab ' a ' b  O
  ab ' a ' b  b '  Ob '
  ab ' b ' a ' bb '  O
  ab ' a ' O   O
  ab ' O   O
 a 'b  O
 a 'b '  O '  1
 a  b '  1           (2)
From (1) and (2) a '  b ' and thus a  b
Hence the proof.

2. In any Boolean algebra prove that a  O  ab ' a ' b  b

Solution:
Part: 1 Suppose a  O is given
Thus,
LHS  ab ' a ' b
 Oa ' O ' a
 O  1b
 b  RHS
Hence ab ' a ' b  b
Part: 2 Now let ab ' a ' b  b is given.
Thus

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

ab ' a ' b  b
  ab ' a ' b  b  bb
  ab ' b  a ' bb   b
  a0  a ' b   b
  0  a 'b   b
 a 'b  b
 aa ' b  ab
 O  ab           (1)
Also
ab ' a ' b  b
  ab ' a ' b  b '  bb '
  ab ' b ' a ' bb '  O
  ab ' a ' O   O
  ab ' O   O
 ab '  O           (2)
From (1) and (2)
ab ' ab  O
 b ' b  a  O
aO
Hence the proof.
3. In a Boolean algebra prove that  a  b  a ' c   ac  a ' b  bc  ac  a ' b
Solution:
Let  a  b  a ' c 
 aa ' ac  ba ' bc
 O  ac  ba ' bc
 ac  ba ' bc           (1)
Now  ac  a ' b  bc
 acbc  a ' bbc
 abc  a ' bc
  a  a ' bc
 bc
Thus   ac  a ' b  bc  bc
 bc  ac  a ' b
 ac  a ' b  bc  ac  a ' b         (2)

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

4. In a Boolean algebra, prove that a  b  a  bc  b  a  c 

Solution:
LHS  a  bc
  a  b  a  c  (Distributive prop)
 ba  c (Thm)
 RHS
5. Show that in a Boolean algebra for any a, b .
b(a  (a '(b  b ')))  b
Solution:
LHS  b(a  (a '(b  b ')))
 b(a  ( a '(1)))
 b(a  a ')
 b(1)
b
 RHS
6. Show that in a Boolean Algebra.
a.  a  b ' c   ' b '  ac '  ' '  abc '
b. a '  b ' c  '  bc      a  b '   ' c   a ' b

Def: Boolean Expression:

Let x1 , x2 ,...., xn be a set of n variables then a Boolean expression   x1 ,..., xn  is
defined as follows:
1. Each x1 , x2 ,...., xn are all Boolean expression.
2. O and 1 are Boolean expressions.
3. If  and  are Boolean expressions then    ,    and  ' are also Boolean
expressions.
4. There are no Boolean expression in the variables xk other than those that can be
obtained by repeated use of above rules.
e.g.   x, y, z    x  y    x  z '

Def: Equivalent Boolean Expressions: -

Two Boolean expressions   x1 ,..., xn  and   x1 ,..., xn  are said to be equivalent if
one can be obtained by a finite number of applications or identities of Boolean algebra.

Example: The following are examples of Boolean expression in variables x1 , x2 , x3

1. x1
2. x1  x2

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

3.  x1 ' x2  '
4.  x1 ' x2  '  x3 ' x1 
Example: - Simplify the following Boolean expression
1.  a  b  '  a  b  '
Here
 a  b  '  a  b  '
  a ' b '    a ' b ' 
  a ' b ' a '   a ' b ' b '
  a ' b '    a ' b ' 
  a ' b ' 
2. 1  a    b  a '
Here
 a    b  a '
  a  b    a  a '
  a  b  1
 a  b
3.  a ' b  c    a  b ' c    a  b ' c '

Def: Complete Product (Minterms): -

A Boolean expression in n variables x1 , x2 ,...., xn consisting product of n terms such
as x1  x2 a2  .......  xn an where ai = 0 or 1
a1

xi 0 Stands for xi ' and xi1 Stands for xi

is known as minterms, or complete product or fundamental product of n variable
e.g. The list of all minterms in two variables x and y are xy, x ' y , xy ', x ' y ' .
xyz xyz ' xy ' z xy ' z '
The list of all minterms in three variables x , y , z are
x ' yz x ' yz ' x ' y ' z x ' y ' z '
In similar way n variables can be combined to form 2n minterms

Def: Sum of Product Canonical form (SOP form)

Every Boolean expression can be expressed in an equivalent form which consists
sums of minterms is known as sum of product canonical form.
e.g. (1)   x1 , x2 , x3   x1 x2 x3 ' x1 ' x2 x3 ' x1 x2 ' x3
(2)   a, b, c   abc  ab ' c  a ' b ' c
Examples of SOP form as done in class work.

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

Def: Complete Sum (Maxterms): -

A Boolean expression in n variables x1 , x2 ,...., xn consisting sum of n terms such as
x1  x2 a2  .......  xn an where ai = 0 or 1
a1

xi 0 Stands for xi and xi1 Stands for xi '

is known as maxterms, or complete sum or fundamental sum of n variable
e.g. The list of all maxterms in two variables x and y are x  y, x ' y, x  y ', x ' y ' .
The list of all maxterms in three variables x , y , z are
x  y  z x  y  z ' x  y ' z x  y ' z '
x ' y  z x ' y  z ' x ' y ' z x ' y ' z '
In similar way n variables can be combined to form 2n maxterms

Def: Product of Sum Canonical form (POS form)

Every Boolean expression can be expressed in an equivalent form which consists
sums of maxterms is known as product of sum canonical form.
e.g. (1)   x1 , x2 , x3    x1  x2  x3 ' x1 ' x2  x3 ' x1  x2 ' x3 
(2)   a, b, c    a  b  c  a  b ' c  a ' b ' c 
Examples of POS form as done in class work.

Def: Value of Boolean Expressions:

Let   x1 , x2 ,...., xn  be a Boolean expressions in n – variables and  B, , , ', O,1 be
any Boolean algebra whose elements are a1 , a2 ,...., an ,.....
Let   a1 , a2 ,...., an  be an n tuple of B n . If we replace xi by ai for all i in the
Boolean expression   x1 , x2 ,...., xn  is known as the value of the Boolean expression.
Remark: If B = {O, 1} then the valuation process of Boolean expression over two point
Boolean algebra is known as binary valuation process.

Examples as done in class room

Def: Boolean function:

Let  B, , , ', O,1 be a Boolean algebra then a function f : B n  B which is
associated with a Boolean expression in n variables, is called a Boolean function.
In other words,
Let   x1 , x2 ,...., xn  be a Boolean expressions in n – variables and  B, , , ', O,1 be
any Boolean algebra whose elements are a1 , a2 ,...., an ,..... , then for any n tuple
 a1 , a2 ,...., an   B n we get a unique value   a1 , a2 ,...., an  of B. Thus we get function
f : B n  B as f  a1 , a2 ,...., an     a1 , a2 ,...., an  , is known as Boolean function.

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad
 Discrete Mathematics
For Class Room Purpose only

Def: Symmetric Expression:

A Boolean expression in n variable  x1 , x2 ,...., xn  is known as symmetric if we
interchange any two variables it results in to an equivalent expression.
e.g. (1)  x1  x2 '   x1 ' x2 
(2)  a ' b  c    a  b ' c    a  b  c '

By Dr. KUNAL T. SHUKLA

Dept. of Sciences and Humanities
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad