SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Population: Total of items about which information is desired. It can be classified into two
categories- finite and infinite. The population is said to be finite if it consists of a fixed number of
elements so that it is possible to enumerate in its totality. Examples of finite population are the
populations of a city, the number of workers in a factory, etc. An infinite population is that
population in which it is theoretically impossible to observe all the elements. In an infinite
population the number of items is infinite. Example of infinite population is the number of stars in
sky. From practical consideration, we use the term infinite population for a population that cannot
be enumerated in a reasonable period of time.
Sample: It is part of the population that represents the characteristics of the population.
Sampling: It is the process of selecting the sample for estimating the population characteristics.
In other words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining
only a part of it.
Sampling Unit: Elementary units or group of such units which besides being clearly defined,
identifiable and observable, are convenient for purpose of sampling are called sampling units. For
instance, in a family budget enquiry, usually a family is considered as the sampling unit since it is
found to be convenient for sampling and for ascertaining the required information. In a crop
survey, a farm or a group of farms owned or operated by a household may be considered as the
sampling unit.
Sampling Frame: A list containing all sampling units is known as sampling frame. Sampling
frame consists of a list of items from which the sample is to be drawn.
Sample Survey: An investigation in which elaborate information is collected on a sample basis is
known as sample survey.
Statistic: Characteristics of the sample. For example, sample Mean, proportion, etc.
Parameter: Characteristics of the population. For example, population Mean, proportion, etc.
Target Population: A target population is the entire group about which information is desired and
conclusion is made.
Sampled Population: The population, which we actually sample, is the sampled population. It is
also called survey population.
PURPOSE OF SAMPLING
The basic purpose of sampling is to provide an estimate of the population parameter and to test the
hypothesis.
Advantages of sampling are -
Save time and money.
Enable collection of comprehensive data.
Enable more accurate measurement as it conducted by trained and experienced investigators.
Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many members.
In certain situation, sampling is the only way of data collection. For example, in testing the
pathological status of blood, boiling status of rice, etc.
It provides a valid estimation of sampling error.
STAGES OF SAMPLING PROCESS
The sampling process comprises several stages-
1. Define the population.
2. Specifying the sampling frame.
3. Specifying the sampling unit.
4. Selection of the sampling method.
5. Determination of sample size.
6. Specifying the sampling plan.
7. Selecting the sample.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
There are two basic approaches to sampling: Probability Sampling and Non-probability Sampling.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Probability sampling is also known as random sampling or chance sampling. In this, sample is
taken in such a manner that each and every unit of the population has an equal and positive chance
of being selected. In this way, it is ensured that the sample would truly represent the overall
population. Probability sampling can be achieved by random selection of the sample among all the
units of the population.
Major random sampling procedures are -
Simple Random Sample
Systematic Random Sample
 Stratified Random Sample, and
Cluster/ Multistage Sample.
Simple Random Sample: This is one in which every case of the population has an equal
probability of inclusion in sample. For this, each member of the population is numbered. Then, a
given size of the sample is drawn with the help of a random number chart. The other way is to do
a lottery. Write all the numbers on small, uniform pieces of paper, fold the papers, put them in a
container and take out the required lot in a random manner from the container as is done in the
kitty parties. It is relatively simple to implement but the final sample may miss out small sub
groups.
Advantages:
- The sample will be free from Bias (i.e. it’s random).
Disadvantages:
- Difficult to obtain.
- Due to its very randomness, “freak” results can sometimes be obtained that are not
representative of the population. In addition, these freak results may be difficult to spot.
Increasing the sample size is the best way to eradicate this problem.
Systematic Random Sample: It also requires numbering the entire population. Then every nth
number (say every 5th or 10th number, as the case may be) is selected to constitute the sample. It
is easier and more likely to represent different subgroups.
Advantages:
- Can eliminate other sources of bias.
Disadvantages:
- Can introduce bias where the pattern used for the samples coincides with a pattern in the
population.
Stratified Random Sample: At first, the population is first divided into groups or strata each of
which is homogeneous with respect to the given characteristic feature. From each strata, then,
samples are drawn at random. This is called stratified random sampling. For example, with respect
to the level of socio-economic status, the population may first be grouped in such strata as high,
middle, low and very low socio-economic levels as per pre-determined criteria, and random sample
drawn from each group.
The sample size for each sub-group can be fixed to get representative sample. This way, it is
possible that different categories in the population are fairly represented in the sample, which could
have been left out otherwise in simple random sample.
Advantages:
- Yields more accurate results than simple random sampling.
- Can show different tendencies within each category (e.g. men and women).
Disadvantages:
- Nothing major, hence it’s used a lot.
Cluster/ Multistage Sample: In some cases, the selection of units may pass through various
stages, before you finally reach your sample of study. For this, a State, for example, may be divided
into districts, districts into blocks, blocks into villages, and villages into identifiable groups of
people, and then taking the random or quota sample from each group. For example, taking a
random selection of 3 out of 15 districts of a State, 6 blocks from each selected district, 10 villages
from each selected block and 20 households from each selected village, totaling 3600 respondents.
This design is used for large-scale surveys spread over large areas.
The advantage is that it needs detailed sampling frame for selected clusters only rather than for the
entire target area. There are savings in travel costs and time as well.
However, there is a risk of missing on important sub-groups and not having complete
representation of the target population.
Advantages:
- Less expensive and time consuming than a fully random sample.
- Can show ‘regional’ variations.
Disadvantages:
- Not a genuine random sample.
- Likely to yield a biased result (especially if only a few clusters are sampled).
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non-probability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population have
no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage'/'under covered'), or
where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined. It involves the selection of
elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for
selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom, non-probability sampling does
not allow the estimation of sampling errors.
Non-probability sampling is a non-random and subjective method of sampling where the selection
of the population elements comprising the sample depends on the personal judgment or the
discretion of the sampler. Non-probability sampling includes –
Accidental/ Convenience/ Opportunity/ Availability/ Haphazard/ Grab Sampling
Quota Sampling
Judgment/ Subjective/ Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling.
Convenience/ Accidental Sampling: Accidental sampling (sometimes known as convenience or
opportunity sampling) is a type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a sample population selected
because it is readily available and convenient. The researcher using such a sample cannot
scientifically make generalizations about the total population from this sample because it would
not be representative enough. For example, if the interviewer was to conduct such a survey at a
shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people that s/he could interview would
be limited to those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at different times of day and
several times per week. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
The primary problem with availability sampling is that you can never be certain what population
the participants in the study represent. The population is unknown, the method for selecting cases
is haphazard, and the cases studied probably don't represent any population you could come up
with.
However, there are some situations in which this kind of design has advantages - for example,
survey designers often want to have some people respond to their survey before it is given out in
the ‘real’ research setting as a way of making certain the questions make sense to respondents. For
this purpose, availability sampling is not a bad way to get a group to take a survey, though in this
case researchers care less about the specific responses given than whether the instrument is
confusing or makes people feel bad.
Quota Sampling: In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive
sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used to select the subjects or units
from each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to
sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60. In quota sampling the selection
of the sample is non-random. For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who
look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a
chance of selection. This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has
been a matter of controversy for many years.
Subjective or Purposive or Judgment Sampling: In this sampling, the sample is selected with
definite purpose in view and the choice of the sampling units depends entirely on the discretion
and judgment of the investigator.
This sampling suffers from drawbacks of favoritism and nepotism depending upon the beliefs and
prejudices of the investigator and thus does not give a representative sample of the population.
This sampling method is seldom used and cannot be recommended for general use since it is often
biased due to element of subjectivity on the part of the investigator. However, if the investigator
is experienced and skilled and this sampling is carefully applied, then judgment samples may yield
valuable results.
Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling, also known as chain-referral sampling, is a non-
probability sampling method where currently enrolled research participants help recruit future
subjects for a study. Snowball sampling is often used in qualitative research when the population
is hard-to-reach or hidden. It’s particularly useful when studying sensitive topics or when the
members of a population are difficult to locate. Snowball sampling is used when researchers have
difficulty finding participants for their studies. This typically occurs in studies on hidden
populations, such as criminals, drug dealers, or sex workers, as these individuals are difficult for
researchers to access.
For example, a researcher studying the experiences of undocumented immigrants in a particular
city. This population might be difficult to reach through traditional sampling methods due to fear
of legal repercussions, lack of formal records, and other barriers. The researcher might start by
contacting a local organization that provides services to immigrants. Through this organization,
the researcher could connect with a few willing individuals to participate in the study. These initial
participants (the “seeds”) would then be asked to refer the researcher to other undocumented
immigrants they know who might also be willing to participate. The new participants would then
refer the researcher to others, and so on, creating a “snowball” effect where the number of
participants grows as each person refers the researcher to others in their network.

SAMPLING ERROR AND SURVEY BIAS

Survey results are typically subject to some error. Total errors can be classified into sampling
errors and non-sampling errors. The term ‘error’ here includes systematic biases as well as random
errors.
Sampling errors and biases: Sampling errors and biases are induced by the sample design. They
include-
1. Selection bias: When the true selection probabilities differ from those assumed in calculating
the results.
2. Random sampling error: Random variation in the results due to the elements in the sample being
selected at random.
Non-sampling error: non-sampling errors are other errors which can impact the final survey
estimates, caused by problems in data collection, processing, or sample design. They include-
1. Over-coverage: Inclusion of data from outside of the population.
2. Under-coverage: Occurs when some members of the population are inadequately represented in
the sample. Under-coverage is often a problem with convenience samples.
3. Measurement error: When respondents misunderstand a question, or find it difficult to answer.
4. Processing error: Mistakes in data coding.
5. Non-response: Failure to obtain complete data from all selected individuals.
After sampling, a review should be held of the exact process followed in sampling, rather than that
intended, in order to study any effects that any divergences might have on subsequent analysis.