Strain

The unit deformation of a material is called strain,

𝜖 = d / dL
represented by the equation Stiffness, k

elastic body to the resulting displacement 𝛿, hence has

Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force P acting on an

𝜖 = strain
where:

𝑘=𝑃/
the unit of N/mm; i. e.
d  differential elongation
dL  differential length
B. Shearing Strain or Deformation
Two Types of Strain Shearing deformation causes a change in shape from a
rectangle to a parallelogram, as shown in Fig. The action
A. Axial/ Normal Strain may be visualized as equivalent to the infinitesimal
For an axially loaded member, it becomes longer when sliding of infinitely thin layers past each other, thereby
the applied load is in tension and shorter when the resulting in the total shearing deformation s in the
applied load is in compression. This change in length is length L
called the normal or linear strain. The average value of
the strain is determined from the equation:

𝜖=/L

𝜖 = average strain
where:

𝛾 = 𝛿𝑠 / L
  deformation The average shearing strain is:
L  length

𝛾 = average strain
where:

𝛿𝑠 = shearing deformation
The use of the formula for average strain are restricted to

𝐿 = length
the following conditions:
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section, that

If Hooke’s law is applied to shear, 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾, from which

is, prismatic.
2. The material must be homogeneous.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform the shearing deformation will be:

𝛿𝑠 = VL / 𝐴𝑠 G
stress.

𝛿𝑠 = shearing deformation
Hooke’s Law where:
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar

𝐿 = length
in simple tension or compression, as shown in the stress- V = shear force

𝐴𝑠 = shearing area
strain diagram, can be expressed by the equation known
as Hooke’s Law, named after the famous English
scientist Robert Hooke who first investigated the elastic G = modulus of rigidity or shear modulus

𝜎=𝐸𝜖
properties of materials.
Working stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

𝜎 = average stress
where: In most engineering structures, it is desired that the

𝐸 = modulus of elasticity(the ratio between Stress and

structure will not fail, therefore, its design is based on
some lower value called allowable stress or design

𝜖 = average strain
strain) stress, which is the maximum safe stress that a material
can carry. The ratio of the ultimate strength to the
 = PL / AE allowable stress is known as the factor of safety; i. e.

 = 𝜎L / E 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒

or

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛿 = axial deformation 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
where:

P = axial load
L = length This factor of safety includes such factors as the

𝐸 = modulus of elasticity
A = cross section uncertainty of the load, the uncertainty of the material
properties, and the inaccuracy of the stress analysis.
The allowable stress should be limited to values not
Since both stress and strain are simple, the use of the exceeding the proportional limit. However, since
formula for axial deformation restricted by the following proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the
conditions: allowable stress can also be computed from the equation:

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

1. The specimen must be of constant cross section.

𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
2. The material must be homogeneous.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform
stress.
4. Stress must not exceed proportional limit. Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a
material under a given loading.
If one of the first three assumptionas is not met,

 = ∑ PL / AE
 3. Malleability – it is the ability of a material to bend or
to be hammered in all the directions without any
fracture, therefore can be deformed to thin and flat
sheets. Most of the malleable materials are also ductile.
Gold, iron, aluminum, lead and copper are some
examples of malleable materials.

4. Toughness – is the ability of a material to absorb

energy before rupturing. Total area under stress strain
curve represents toughness.

5. Strength – this is the capability of a material to

withstand the load being applied on it without failure.
Fatigue strength represents the capability of a material to
withstand cyclic loading while impact strength is the
capability of a material to withstand a load that is
suddenly applied.

Proportional Limit (𝜎𝑝𝑙) – it is the point on the stress- 6. Elasticity – it is the ability of a material to produce
strain curve which shows the highest stress at which the strain in all directions under the action of applied stress

where the constant of proportionality is 𝐸, known as the

stress and strain are linearly proportional to each other, without permanent deformation. The body returns to its
original size and shape when unloaded.

Thomas Young who introduced it. That is, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖.

modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, named after
7. Plasticity – the ability of material to change in size
From this relation, 𝐸 can be defined as the slope of the and shape permanently under the action of applied force
strain-strain curve along the elastic region. Stress is no This property of materials is used to mold different
longer linearly proportional to strain above this point. materials to desired form.

8. Resilience – this is the ability of a material to absorb

Elastic Limit (𝜎𝑒𝑙) - it is the maximum stress that can
energy when it is deformed elastically. When the body is
be applied to the body without resulting in permanent
unloaded, it will release energy. It represents the
deformation when the load is removed. When the load is
maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume
removed, the material returns to its original size and
without creating permanent distortion.
shape.
9. Poisson’s Ratio – it is the ratio of liner strain to the
Yield point (𝜎𝑌) – located just above the elastic limit,
lateral strain.
this is the stress at which the material continues to
deform without increase in load. At this point the
10. Hardness – it is the ability of a material to resist
material will have a permanent deformation.
scratch, bending, aberration, wear, tear, and indentation.
It is also the resistance to penetration of another body.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (𝜎𝑢) – this is the highest
Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material.
stress on the specimen which it can withstand.
11. Flexural Strength – this is the maximum stress
Fracture Stress (𝜎𝑓) – also called breaking strength, it experienced by a body at its moment of fracture. It is
is the stress where the material fractures. also known as the modulus of rupture or bends strength.
Necking – this is the region where the cross-sectional 12. Fatigue Ratio – also called endurance ratio, this is
area of the material decreases in a localized spot, the ratio of fatigue strength to tensile strength. The
forming a neck, and the capacity of the material to carry material having high fatigue ratio shows that it will crack
load will decrease. This covers the area from the down during loading.
ultimate tensile stress to fracture point where the
material breaks. 13. Young’s Modulus or modulus of elasticity – it is the
ratio of stress applied to the strain under elastic limit
which measures the stiffness of an elastic material.
Mechanical Properties of Materials
14. Tensile Strength or ultimate tensile strength – it is
Mechanical properties are material properties that the measure of maximum stress that a body can
determine the applications and behavior of materials withstand while being stretched or pulled away before
which are helpful in identifying them. necking.
1. Ductility – it is the measure of deformation in a
material which it can withstand before fracturing.

2. Brittleness – this is the opposite of ductility. It is the

property of material to fracture just after elastic limit
when stress is applied on it. Examples of brittle materials
are clay, glass and ceramics.