International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Dairy Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/idairyj

Comparison of camel, buffalo, cow, goat, and sheep yoghurts in terms

of various physicochemical, biochemical, textural and rheological
properties
Murat Emre Terziog _

lu a, Ihsan Bakırcı a, Emel Oz a, Charles S. Brennan b, c,
d, e
Thom Huppertz , Ryszard Amarowicz f, Mohammad Rizwan Khan g, Tahra Elobeid h,
Rana Muhammad Aadil i, Fatih Oz a, *
a
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Ataturk University, Erzurum, 25240, Turkiye
b
RMIT University, School of Science, Melbourne, VIC, 3001, Australia
c
Riddet Institute, Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand
d
Food Quality & Design Group, Wageningen University & Research, 6708WG, Wageningen, the Netherlands
e
FrieslandCampina, 3800LE, Amersfoort, the Netherlands
f
Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Olsztyn, Poland
g
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
h
Human Nutrition Department, College of Health Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University, Qatar
i
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Comparative physicochemical, biochemical, textural, and rheological properties of yoghurts produced
Received 19 April 2023 using buffalo, camel, cow, goat, and sheep milk were analysed. The physicochemical, textural, and
Received in revised form rheological properties were determined over a 14-day storage period. Different animal milk types had a
28 June 2023
significant effect on all physicochemical analyses, fatty acid composition, conjugated linoleic acid con-
Accepted 2 July 2023
tent, cholesterol content, all amino acids except asparagine, ACE inhibitory activity, citric acid, and orotic
Available online 15 July 2023
acid, as well as other textural and rheological properties, except flow index n parameter. The storage
period had a very significant effect on titratable acidity, pH value, firmness, consistency, cohesiveness,
and yield stress t0 parameters. Compared with other yoghurts studied, camel yoghurt was richer in
P
terms of myristic acid from saturated fatty acids, PUFA, arginine, lysine, phenylalanine, tryptophan,
valine from essential amino acids, glutamic acid, and proline from non-essential amino acids, ACE
inhibitory activity value, and hippuric and orotic acids.
© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction compounds that are beneficial for health are formed by the use of
lactic acid bacteria in the production of dairy products. Bioactive
Cardiovascular diseases are one of the main causes of death peptides formed during the production of fermented milk products
worldwide and are reported to be associated with high blood such as yoghurt show angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
pressure and serum cholesterol. Today, various side effects of drugs inhibitory activity properties that drugs have used in the treatment
used in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases have brought the of hypertension (Rai, Sanjukta, & Jeyaram, 2017). It is also reported
search for natural resources to the agenda, and in this context, that yoghurt contributes to the reduction of cholesterol levels by
functional foods have also attracted attention (Kumar et al., 2022). means of its protein, conjugated linoleic acid, and mineral sub-
Milk and dairy products exhibit functional food characteristics due stance contents (Kumar et al., 2022).
to the unique components they contain such as fatty acids, amino Although cow milk is widely used (83%) in the production of
acids, vitamins, and mineral substances. Various bioactive drinking milk or dairy products, the use of other types of milk has
come to the fore in this field due to the fact that consumers are
more conscious and functional foods are gaining popularity. In the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Oz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2023.105749
0958-6946/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

production of dairy products, compared with cow milk, it has been subjected to heat treatment at 90
C for 10e15 min. Then, classical
reported that the use of camel milk is superior in terms of essential yoghurt culture (L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus)
fatty acids, vitamins, and mineral substances, the use of buffalo was added at the appropriate temperature and rate (43e45
C and
milk is superior in terms of lactose, protein, vitamins and mineral 20 g 100 L1) on the basis of direct vat inoculation and incubated in
substances (Galeboe, Seifu, & Sekwati-Monang, 2018), the use of 200 mL glass jars. Yoghurt samples, which were incubated
sheep milk is superior in terms of protein, essential amino acids, fat (43e45
C) in the incubators (Memmert, UN55) until the pH value
and short-chain fatty acids, and the use of goat milk is superior in reached 4.6 ± 0.1, were stored at 4
C to be used in the analyses.
terms of protein, fat, medium-chain fatty acids and vitamins Physicochemical, textural, and rheology analyses of the yoghurt
(Boukria et al., 2020). For these reasons, scientific studies in recent samples were performed on days 1, 7 and 14 of storage, while all
years have focused on the use of buffalo, camel, goat, and sheep other analyses were performed on day 1 of storage.
milk instead of cow milk in fermented milk products such as
yoghurt and the improvement of their functional properties. 2.3. Physicochemical analyses of raw milk and yoghurt samples
Although some studies have been carried out to date (El Zubeir,
Basher, Alameen, Mohammed, & Shuiep, 2012; Moschopoulou Total solids, fat, protein, ash, titratable acidity, and pH values of
et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2023), to the best of our knowledge, raw milk used as raw material and experimental yoghurt samples
there is no study that investigates and compares various physico- were performed with reference to Terziog
lu and Bakırcı (2023) and
chemical, biochemical (fatty acid composition, cholesterol content,
lu, Yıldız Küçük, and Bakırcı (2022).
Terziog
amino acid profile, ACE inhibitory activity, and organic acid profile),
textural, and rheological properties of yoghurts produced with 2.4. Determination of fatty acid composition and conjugated
camel milk and yoghurts produced with buffalo, cow, goat and linoleic acid content (CLA)
sheep milk at the same time. Although different animal milk types
have relatively similar compositions, each has its own superior Gas chromatography (GC, QP2010, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) was
characteristics. In this context, it is important to get information used to determine the fatty acid composition and CLA content of
about the organic acid profile, which is important in the charac- the experimental yoghurt samples, and the method given by
teristic aroma of yoghurt, amino acid profile, fatty acid composition Satchithanandam, Fritsche, and Rader (2001) was taken as a basis.
and CLA content, which is important in nutritional value, ACE Fatty acid composition and CLA analysis were performed using a
inhibitory activity, which is important in nutraceutical properties, Restek RTX-2330 capillary column (60 m  0.25 mm  0.1 mm) and
textural and rheological properties, which are important in con- a flame ionisation detector (FID, QP2010) in gas chromatography. In
sumer preference. GC-FID, the column furnace temperature was set to 240
C and the
Therefore, in the current research, the fatty acid composition, injector and detector temperature were set to 250
C. Helium
conjugated linoleic acid content, cholesterol content, amino acid (1 mL min1) was used as the carrier gas in the system.
profile, ACE inhibitory activity value, organic acid profile, textural, The identification of the analyte peaks was established by
and rheological properties of yoghurts produced using different comparing retention times of the analyte peaks in the samples with
types of milk (buffalo, camel, cow, goat, and sheep) and classical retention times of the mix standard (Supelco, CRM47885). For the
yoghurt culture (Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and quantification, area calculation of the analyte peaks in the samples
Streptococcus thermophilus) were determined and compared with was done according to those of standard solutions.
each other. In addition to their pharmaceutical and/or therapeutic
utility, the textural properties of these yoghurts were also investi- 2.5. Determination of cholesterol content
gated. In addition, various quality criteria (total solids, fat, protein,
ash, titratable acidity, and pH values) were also determined during For the cholesterol content analysis of the experimental yoghurt
the storage period of the yoghurts. samples, methanolic potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution was
added to the yoghurt samples and kept in a water bath at 80
C for
2. Materials and methods 15 min. Centrifugation was carried out by adding 5 mL of n-hexane
and 1 mL of distilled water to the samples cooled to room tem-
2.1. Milk, milk powder and starters perature. Then, 1 mL of the upper phase was taken and a reading
was made in gas chromatography-flame ionisation detector (GC-
Camel milk used as raw material in the present study was ob- FID, QP2010, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). In GC-FID, the column oven
tained from local farms in Denizli (Türkiye), while buffalo, cow, temperature was 285
C and the injection and detector tempera-
goat, and sheep milk were obtained from local farms in Erzurum ture was 300
C. Helium as a carrier gas in the system was adjusted
(Türkiye). The classical yoghurt culture (YC-350-L. delbrueckii to a flow rate of 2 mL min1. The identification and quantification of
subsp. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus) used in yoghurt production cholesterol was determined according to the retention time and
was supplied through CHR Hansen (Süt-Sa Süt Sanayii Adapazarı/ peak area of the cholesterol standard (Sigma, C8667) and stig-
Türkiye). Skimmed cow milk powder was obtained from the Bag
dat masterol (Sigma, S2424) standard (Fletouris, Botsoglou, Psomas, &
Baharat company from Ankara (Türkiye) and the average total Mantis, 1998).
solids content of it was determined as 95.34%, fat content as 1.19%,
protein content as 35.51%, ash content as 8.22%, titratable acidity 2.6. Determination of amino acid profile
value as 0.15% LA and pH value as 6.81 (10% solution) (Terziog
lu,
2022). For the amino acid profile analysis of the yoghurt samples, the
method of Atila et al. (2021) was taken as a reference, and the
2.2. Experimental yoghurt production analyses were carried out by making some modifications to the
method. Yoghurt sample (100 mL) was mixed with 50 mL of internal
Pre-treatment (purification and homogenisation) was applied to standard and 650 mL of amino acid solvent (mobile phase A, mobile
the milk of different animal species used in the production of phase B, 1/4, v/v) and subjected to centrifugation (10,000  g,
experimental yoghurt and 3% skimmed milk powder was added. 8 min). Quantitative values were obtained by relating chromato-
Then, the milk was taken separately to the pasteurisation tank and graphic peak areas to those derived from externally run calibration
2
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

standards and using the institutional database. The amino acid samples produced with different milk types (buffalo, camel, cow,
profile was determined using the liquid chromatography-tandem goat and sheep) were carried out according to the completely
mass/mass spectrometer system (LCeMS/MS, Agilent 6460 Triple randomised block designs. Statistical analyses were interpreted
Quadropol, USA) and the details of the LCeMS/MS analysis condi- using the SPSS 20 package program and Duncan multiple com-
tions are given in theSupplementary material Table S1. parison test. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed
using SIMCA-P þ 14.1 (UMETRICS, Umea, Sweden) software.
2.7. Determination of ACE inhibitory activity
3. Results
The method applied by Cushman and Cheung (1971) and
Nakamura et al. (1995) was modified to determine the ACE inhib- 3.1. Physicochemical analyses
itory activity value of yoghurt samples. Yoghurt sample (50 mL),
hippuryl-L-histidyl-L-leucine (HHL, 180 mL) solution, and ACE solu- The results of various physicochemical analyses of the milk of
tion (20 mL) were mixed together. It was then incubated (at 37
C for buffalo, camel, cow, goat, and sheep, skimmed milk powder, and
90 min) and the incubation was completed by adding 250 mL of 1 M the experimental yoghurt samples are given in Table 1.
HCl solution. Ethyl acetate (1.7 mL) was added to the mixture and Of the different animal milk types, sheep milk had the highest
evaporated (at 100
C for 15 min). By adding 1 mL of distilled water content of total solids, fat, protein, and ash, while cow milk had the
to the hippuric acid solution formed; the absorbance was measured lowest values. The chemical compositions of raw milk of different
at a wavelength of 228 nm in a UV-spectrophotometer (Optizen animal species and skimmed milk powder were in agreement with
POP) and the ACE inhibitory activity calculated by: the data in the literature (Arslaner, Salik, & Bakirci, 2021; Boukria
et al., 2020; El-Hanafy et al., 2023).
ACE inhibitory activity ð%Þ ¼ 100  ½100  ðC  DÞ∕ðA  BÞ The use of milk of different animals in yoghurt production had a
very significant effect (P < 0.01) on all physicochemical analyses
where A is the absorbance in the presence of ACE solution, without (total solids, fat, protein, ash, titratable acidity, and pH values)
yoghurt sample; B is the absorbance without ACE solution and examined in the current study, while the storage time had a very
yoghurt sample; C is the absorbance in the presence of ACE solution significant effect (P < 0.01) on the titratable acidity and pH values of
and yoghurt sample and D is the absorbance of yoghurt sample the yoghurt samples alone. The highest total solids, fat, protein, and
without ACE solution. ash contents were determined in sheep yoghurt samples, the
highest titratable acidity value was determined in cow yoghurt, and
2.8. Determination of organic acid profile the highest pH value was determined in camel yoghurt.
During the storage period (1, 7 and 14 days), it was found that
In the determination of the organic acid profile (citric acid, the acidity increased and the pH value decreased in the entire
hippuric acid, lactic acid, orotic acid, pyruvic acid, tartaric acid, and yoghurt samples, as expected, at a very significant level (P < 0.01).
uric acid) of the yoghurt samples, the method given by Çelik, Balthazar et al. (2016) reported that the pH value of sheep yoghurt
€ o
Gerçek, Ozk €k, and Ecem Bayram (2022) was taken as a basis and varied between 4.37 and 4.52 and the titratable acidity value varied
the content was determined by making some changes. For this between 1.15 and 1.35% LA. Galeboe et al. (2018) reported that the
purpose, 5 g of yoghurt sample was weighed and centrifuged by total solids content of camel yoghurt was 19.45%, the ash content
adding 5 mL of methanol. After centrifugation, 900 mL solvent (0.2% was 0.71%, the pH value was 4.67, and the titratable acidity value
formic acid in distilled water) was added to 100 mL supernatant. The was 0.87% LA. Terziog
lu (2022), on the other hand, revealed that the
organic acid profile of the yoghurt samples was determined using total solids content of cow yoghurt was 15.23%, the fat content was
Agilent Zorbax SB-C8 column (150 mm  3.0 mm, 3.5 mm particle 4.37% and the protein content was 4.20%, while the total solids
size, Agilent Technologies) in LCeMS/MS (Agilent 6460 Triple content of goat yoghurt was 16.38%, the fat content was 4.83% and
Quadropol, USA) and details of LCeMS/MS analysis conditions are protein content was 4.74%.
given in theSupplementary material Table S2. It is reported that the fact that skim milk powder is rich in
protein and lactose makes positive contributions on various phys-
2.9. Texture and rheology analyses icochemical and sensory properties of yoghurt. In addition, milk
powders from different animal milk types have been reported to
The texture analysis (firmness, consistency, and cohesiveness) of affect the protein content, amino acid profile, consistency, viscosity
the experimental yoghurt samples was carried out by making some and serum separation value of the yoghurt (Gonza lez-Martínez
modifications to the method given by Boz (2012). In the texture et al., 2002; Salih & Hamid, 2013; Wang et al., 2023).
analysis of yoghurt samples, TA.XTplus Texture Analyzer (Stable
Micro Systems Ltd., Godalming, UK) device and a probe with a 3.2. Fatty acid composition, CLA, and cholesterol content results
diameter of 40 mm were used. Test speed, pre-test speed, and post-
test speed were taken as 3.00 mm s1, distance as 30 mm, and Fatty acid composition, CLA, and cholesterol content results of
trigger force as 5 g. The rheology analysis (yield stress t0, consis- the buffalo, camel, cow, goat, and sheep yoghurt samples are shown
tency k, and flow index) of the experimental yoghurt samples was in Table 2.
performed by making some modifications to the method given by The use of different animal milk types in yoghurt production
Yeung, Lee, and Chang (2019). Rheological analysis of yoghurt had a very significant effect (P < 0.01) on all fatty acids, CLA, and
samples was performed with Reocompass 1.25 software using a cholesterol content. It was determined that the dominant fatty
rheometer device (Anton Paar MCR 102, Austria). acids in yoghurt samples produced from different animal milk
types were myristic, palmitic, stearic acid, oleic, and linoleic acids.
2.10. Statistical analysis The higher content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) compared with
unsaturated fatty acids (USFA) in animal-derived fats is a health
In the present study, all yoghurt productions and analyses were concern (Mantzourani, Batsika, Kokotou, & Kokotos, 2022). The
P
performed in two replications and two parallel samples were used highest SFA content was determined in sheep yoghurt, while the
P
in each replication. The analyses of the experimental yoghurt lowest SFA content was determined in cow yoghurt. When the
3
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

Table 1
The physicochemical analysis results of the different animals' milk and the experimental yoghurt samples.a

Parameter Total solids (%) Fat Protein Ash Titratable acidity pH

(%) (%) (%) (lactic acid, %)

Milk type
Buffalo 17.34 ± 0.05b 7.47 ± 0.04b 4.08 ± 0.01b 0.83 ± 0.01b 0.21 ± 0.01a 6.64 ± 0.02a
Camel 13.55 ± 0.03c 4.63 ± 0.01c 3.54 ± 0.01d 0.72 ± 0.02c 0.20 ± 0.01a 6.68 ± 0.04a
Cow 12.67 ± 0.04e 3.76 ± 0.01e 3.40 ± 0.02e 0.71 ± 0.01c 0.20 ± 0.00a 6.66 ± 0.01a
Goat 13.14 ± 0.02d 3.92 ± 0.03d 3.71 ± 0.01c 0.82 ± 0.03b 0.19 ± 0.00a 6.73 ± 0.01a
Sheep 19.25 ± 0.01a 7.88 ± 0.01a 5.52 ± 0.03a 0.96 ± 0.04a 0.21 ± 0.01a 6.65 ± 0.03a
Sig. ** ** ** ** ns ns
Yoghurt type
Buffalo 19.52 ± 0.13b 8.25 ± 0.12b 5.31 ± 0.05b 0.93 ± 0.02b 1.04 ± 0.10c 4.24 ± 0.10c
Camel 16.25 ± 0.16c 5.56 ± 0.06c 4.82 ± 0.02d 0.82 ± 0.01d 0.90 ± 0.07e 4.37 ± 0.08a
Cow 15.25 ± 0.11e 4.55 ± 0.05e 4.25 ± 0.03e 0.82 ± 0.01d 1.11 ± 0.12a 4.16 ± 0.12e
Goat 15.59 ± 0.10d 4.77 ± 0.04d 5.04 ± 0.03c 0.87 ± 0.02c 1.08 ± 0.11b 4.19 ± 0.11d
Sheep 21.42 ± 0.19a 9.35 ± 0.01a 6.11 ± 0.05a 1.03 ± 0.02a 0.99 ± 0.09d 4.30 ± 0.08b
Sig. ** ** ** ** ** **
Storage period (days)
1 17.61 ± 2.49a 6.51 ± 2.09a 5.11 ± 0.65a 0.90 ± 0.09a 0.91 ± 0.05c 4.37 ± 0.06a
7 17.62 ± 2.56a 6.49 ± 2.04a 5.11 ± 0.67a 0.89 ± 0.09a 1.05 ± 0.09b 4.23 ± 0.09b
14 17.58 ± 2.67a 6.49 ± 2.01a 5.09 ± 0.62a 0.89 ± 0.08a 1.12 ± 0.09a 4.15 ± 0.09c
Sig. ns ns ns ns ** **
a
Different superscript letters in a column indicate significant differences; **, P < 0.01; ns, P > 0.05; Sig., significance.

Table 2
The fatty acid composition (%), CLA (%) and cholesterol (mg 100 g1) contents of experimental yoghurt samples.a

Fatty acid Yoghurt Sig.

Buffalo Camel Cow Goat Sheep

Myristic acid (C14:0) 9.35 ± 0.01e 12.18 ± 0.02a 9.83 ± 0.02d 10.71 ± 0.01c 11.23 ± 0.04b **
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 32.65 ± 0.02a 23.44 ± 0.01e 27.13 ± 0.03b 24.53 ± 0.04d 24.97 ± 0.01c **
Stearic acid (C18:0) 10.47 ± 0.04e 12.56 ± 0.03c 13.57 ± 0.01a 13.08 ± 0.01b 11.76 ± 0.02d **
Other SFA 15.39 ± 0.10 15.24 ± 0.08 12.21 ± 0.10 18.37 ± 0.08 21.16 ± 0.09
P
e
SFA 67.86 ± 0.04b 63.42 ± 0.02d 62.74 ± 0.04e 66.69 ± 0.03c 69.12 ± 0.01a **
Oleic acid (C18:1) 25.95 ± 0.01b 16.94 ± 0.04e 29.46 ± 0.01a 24.34 ± 0.03c 20.03 ± 0.01d **
Other MUFA 2.95 ± 0.02 11.26 ± 0.04 4.61 ± 0.00 3.81 ± 0.01 7.14 ± 0.01
P
e
MUFA 28.90 ± 0.04b 28.20 ± 0.00c 34.07 ± 0.01a 28.15 ± 0.02d 27.17 ± 0.00e **
Linoleic acid (C18:2) 2.76 ± 0.04c 3.26 ± 0.01b 2.67 ± 0.01c 3.54 ± 0.06a 2.37 ± 0.04d **
Other PUFA 0.48 ± 0.04 5.12 ± 0.01 0.52 ± 0.02 1.62 ± 0.05 1.34 ± 0.02
P
e
PUFA 3.24 ± 0.00d 8.38 ± 0.02a 3.19 ± 0.04e 5.16 ± 0.01b 3.71 ± 0.01c **
CLA 0.75 ± 0.01b 0.82 ± 0.02ab 0.64 ± 0.05c 0.86 ± 0.01a 0.53 ± 0.04d **
Cholesterol 15.88 ± 0.01b 12.95 ± 0.01d 12.51 ± 0.03e 14.18 ± 0.06c 17.09 ± 0.04a **
a
Abbreviations are: SFA, saturated fatty acid; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acid; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; CLA, conjugated linoleic acid; Sig., significance. Different
superscript letters in a row indicate significant differences: **, P < 0.01.

monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) contents were compared, the the lowest SFA content (64.86%), the highest MUFA content
P
highest MUFA content was found in cow yoghurt and the lowest (33.03%), and the lowest PUFA content (2.12%). On the other hand,
P
MUFA content was determined in sheep yoghurt. When the the researchers mentioned that cow milk had the highest SFA
polyunsaturated fatty acid content (PUFA) of yoghurt samples content (71.24%) and goat milk had the highest PUFA content
produced from different types of milk were compared, the highest (4.08%). Therefore, the fact that different animal milk types have
P
PUFA content was found in camel yoghurt, while the lowest different fatty acid compositions is thought to affect the fatty acid
P
PUFA content was found in cow yoghurt. composition of the experimental yoghurt samples.
These differences in the fatty acid composition of bovine and On the other hand, CLA content, which significantly contributes
ovine milk are explained by differences in milk fat globule diameter to the functional properties of yoghurt, was determined to be the
and mammary cells, and the type of milk is important, especially highest in goat yoghurt (0.86%)  camel yoghurt (0.82%) > buffalo
since the SFA content is synthesised in the mammary glands of yoghurt (0.75%) > cow yoghurt (0.64%) > sheep yoghurt (0.53%).
ruminant animals (Karakus, Akgul, Korkmaz, & Atasoy, 2022). The CLA content in milk fat is mainly formed by the activity of D9-
However, it is quite difficult to evaluate the fatty acid composition desaturase in the mammary gland or the biohydrogenation and
of yoghurts produced from different types of milk. Because it is isomerisation of unsaturated fatty acids by bacteria. Various pa-
known that many factors such as the origin of milk, lactation, rameters such as milk type, feeding, season, oxidative reactions,
feeding, season, fermentation, heat treatment, microorganisms, starter culture, fermentation, and heat treatment play a role in the
storage, and added additives affect the fatty acid composition of different CLA content in milk types (Serafeimidou, Zlatanos,
yoghurt (Mantzourani et al., 2022; Paszczyk & Czarnowska- Kritikos, & Tourianis, 2013). Alichanidis, Moatsou, and
Kujawska, 2022). Polychroniadou (2016) reported that the average CLA content was
In a study conducted for determining the fatty acid composition 0.8% in sheep milk, 0.7% in cow and goat milk, 0.6% in buffalo milk
of different animal milk types by Barłowska, Szwajkowska, and 0.4% in camel milk. In this context, in the current research, it
Litwin czuk, and Kro
l (2011), it was reported that camel milk had was observed that the CLA content of milk, fermentation process

4
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

and oxidation reactions had a significant effect on the differences in The amino acid profile and ACE inhibitory activities of the buf-
CLA content of yoghurt samples. falo, camel, cow, goat, and sheep yoghurt samples are given in
The cholesterol content of the yoghurts produced from different Table 3. It was found that the use of different animal milk types in
types of milk was determined as 12.51 mg 100 g1 in cow yoghurt, yoghurt production had a significant effect (P < 0.05) on asparagine,
12.95 mg 100 g1 in camel yoghurt, 14.18 mg 100 g1 in goat while it had a very significant effect (P < 0.01) on all other amino
yoghurt, 15.88 mg 100 g1 in buffalo yoghurt and 17.09 mg 100 g1 acids and ACE inhibitory activity values. When the amino acid
in sheep yoghurt. profile of yoghurts produced from the milk of different animals was
Claeys et al. (2014) reported cholesterol content of buffalo, assessed, it was determined that glutamic acid was found to be at
camel, cow, goat and sheep milk as 4e18 mg 100 mL1, the highest level among non-essential amino acids. In yoghurt
31.3e37.1 mg 100 mL1, 13.1e31.3 mg 100 mL1, 10.7e18.1 mg samples, glutamic acid was followed by proline, while lysine and
100 mL1 and 14e29 mg 100 mL1, respectively. Furthermore, in leucine were found to be the highest among essential amino acids.
the current study, the cholesterol content of yoghurts was observed Lysine, one of the dominant essential amino acids in the amino acid
to be linked to SFA contents in addition to milk type. profile, plays a role in growth, bone development, calcium ab-
Although it has been studied for many years, the relationship sorption, and nitrogen balance, while leucine is effective in bone
between dietary cholesterol content and serum cholesterol, and development, blood sugar balance, skin, and muscle tissue repair.
long-chain fatty acids has still not been clearly explained (Soliman, Glutamic acid, one of the non-essential amino acids, plays a pro-
2018). On the other hand, it has also been reported that 300 mg of tective role in brain cell activities and cardiovascular diseases, while
cholesterol should be taken daily to use metabolic events such as proline has positive effects on cartilage, joint, and heart muscle
the synthesis of vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile acids in the (Kavas & Kınık, 2005).
body (Soliman, 2018). However, in recent studies, it has been In general, the roles of essential amino acids in important
shown that yoghurt reduces blood cholesterol levels (Ohlsson, metabolic activities, such as their use as a substrate in gluconeo-
2010; Paszczyk & Czarnowska-Kujawska, 2022). In addition, it has genesis in addition to their protein synthesis and protein catabolism
been reported that the inclusion of dairy products in the diet is functions, require their dietary intake (Maduka, Maduka, Ugwu, &
effective in reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases by Mukthari, 2013). In the current study, when the amino acid profile
increasing the level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol of camel yoghurt was viewed, it was observed that it showed su-
(Ohlsson, 2010). Furthern, it has been emphasised that fermented perior properties compared with other yoghurts in terms of arginine,
products are more effective in lowering plasma cholesterol levels lysine, phenylalanine, tryptophan and valine from essential amino
compared with milk (Ohlsson, 2010; Seçkin, Gursoy, Kinik, & acids, and glutamic acid, and proline from non-essential amino acids.
Akbulut, 2005). In this context, in the current research, it is seen However, isoleucine, leucine, cystine, and tyrosine in the buffalo
that sheep yoghurt, which contains the highest cholesterol among yoghurt; histidine, methionine, aspartic acid, and serine in the cow
yoghurts produced from different animal milk types, exceeds the yoghurt; and threonine and alanine in the goat yoghurt were found
recommended level of 300 mg only if consumed in very high in higher levels compared with other amino acids.
quantities (about 1800 g), which is not very possible. In addition to the milk type, the cultures used (especially
S. thermophilus) also have a significant effect on the free amino acid
3.3. Amino acid profile and ACE inhibitory activity profile in yoghurt. Indeed, S. thermophilus metabolically uses glu-
tamic acid, arginine, tryptophan, histidine, tyrosine, leucine,
In the current study, the concentrations of 19 amino acids were isoleucine, valine, cystine, and methionine amino acids. It is also
examined in yoghurt samples produced from different types of reported that amino acids such as threonine, isoleucine, leucine,
milk. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) and valine contribute to the formation of characteristic aroma
values calculated according to the signal/noise ratios are given in compounds of yoghurt (Germani et al., 2014). Various factors such
theSupplementary material Table S2. as milk type, heat treatment, fermentation, and microorganism

Table 3
The amino acid profile (g 100 g1 protein) and ACE inhibitory activity (%) of the experimental yoghurt samples.a

Component Yoghurt Sig.

Buffalo Camel Cow Goat Sheep

Arginine 3.52 ± 0.04d 4.31 ± 0.07a 3.72 ± 0.01b 3.54 ± 0.06cd 3.64 ± 0.02bc **
Histidine 2.65 ± 0.02c 2.64 ± 0.04b 3.17 ± 0.03a 2.11 ± 0.02d 2.36 ± 0.05c **
Isoleucine 5.89 ± 0.01a 5.17 ± 0.03d 5.72 ± 0.04b 5.73 ± 0.06b 5.57 ± 0.02c **
Leucine 9.94 ± 0.05a 9.55 ± 0.05c 9.21 ± 0.01d 9.61 ± 0.01c 9.84 ± 0.01b **
Lysine 8.30 ± 0.08b 8.59 ± 0.02a 8.09 ± 0.04c 8.14 ± 0.06c 8.46 ± 0.04a **
Methionine 2.10 ± 0.06c 2.08 ± 0.02c 3.33 ± 0.05a 2.87 ± 0.02b 1.86 ± 0.01d **
Phenylalanine 4.33 ± 0.04c 5.15 ± 0.01a 3.97 ± 0.04e 4.18 ± 0.06d 4.46 ± 0.03b **
Threonine 7.05 ± 0.02c 5.82 ± 0.04d 5.26 ± 0.01e 7.79 ± 0.05a 7.63 ± 0.01b **
Tryptophan 2.39 ± 0.04b 2.80 ± 0.10a 1.92 ± 0.09c 2.14 ± 0.08c 2.54 ± 0.11b **
Valine 6.58 ± 0.07a 6.70 ± 0.02a 6.21 ± 0.01c 6.34 ± 0.05bc 6.42 ± 0.08b **
Alanine 4.74 ± 0.04b 2.71 ± 0.01e 3.64 ± 0.06c 4.96 ± 0.02a 3.23 ± 0.05d **
Asparagine 2.59 ± 0.12a,b 2.48 ± 0.04a,b 2.17 ± 0.15c 2.38 ± 0.08bc 2.74 ± 0.06a *
Aspartic acid 5.59 ± 0.06e 6.75 ± 0.02b 7.14 ± 0.03a 6.58 ± 0.05c 6.31 ± 0.01d **
Cystine 2.23 ± 0.02a 1.32 ± 0.01c 1.14 ± 0.06d 1.54 ± 0.13b 1.36 ± 0.03c **
Glycine 1.41 ± 0.03e 1.63 ± 0.07d 2.35 ± 0.02b 2.64 ± 0.11a 2.57 ± 0.04a **
Glutamic acid 10.72 ± 0.09c 13.08 ± 0.17a 12.54 ± 0.04b 10.80 ± 0.11c 11.00 ± 0.08c **
Proline 9.55 ± 0.02c 11.46 ± 0.01a 9.19 ± 0.04d 9.46 ± 0.05c 10.39 ± 0.07b **
Serine 4.87 ± 0.06b 3.57 ± 0.04d 6.04 ± 0.01a 4.32 ± 0.08c 4.88 ± 0.04b **
Tyrosine 4.15 ± 0.05a 2.61 ± 0.06e 3.13 ± 0.06c 2.82 ± 0.02d 3.27 ± 0.00b **
ACE inhibitory activity 36.21 ± 0.05c 41.54 ± 0.46a 33.15 ± 0.34e 35.32 ± 0.42d 39.64 ± 0.26b **
a
Different superscript letters in a row indicate significant differences: **, P < 0.01; *, P < 0.05; Sig., significance.

5
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

activity are effective in the differences in amino acid profile in 3.4. Organic acid profile
products such as yoghurt (Landi, Ragucci, & Di Maro, 2021).
Boukria et al. (2020) reported that the predominant amino acids In the current research, the content of a total of 7 organic acids,
in different animal milk types are leucine, glutamic acid, and pro- i.e., citric acid, hippuric acid, lactic acid, orotic acid, pyruvic acid,
line. These researchers reported that leucine contents in the milk of tartaric acid, and uric acid, were examined in the yoghurt samples
buffalo, camel, cow, goat and sheep were 8.74e8.97 g 100 g1 produced from different milk types. The LOD and LOQ values
protein, 9.5e10.4 g 100 g1 protein, 9.44e10.4 g 100 g1 protein, calculated according to the signal/noise ratios in determining the
8.7e9.8 g 100 g1 protein and 9.7e9.9 g 100 g1 protein, respec- organic acid profile are given in theSupplementary material
tively. They stated that the glutamic acid contents in the milk of Table S2. The organic acid profile of buffalo, camel, cow, goat, and
buffalo, camel, cow, goat and sheep were 19.36e19.64 g 100 g1 sheep yoghurt samples is given in Table 4. It was determined that
protein, 19.5e23.9 g 100 g1 protein, 19.66e21.8 g 100 g1 protein, the use of different animal milk types in yoghurt production had a
5.23e23.2 g 100 g1 protein and 14.5 g 100 g1 protein, respec- very significant effect (P < 0.01) on citric and orotic acids, while it
tively. Boukria et al. (2020) also reported that the proline contents did not have a statistically significant effect (P > 0.05) on other
in the milk of buffalo, camel, cow, goat and sheep were 9.21e9.32 g organic acids. Citric acid, which is formed as an intermediate
100 g1 protein, 11.1e13.0 g 100 g1 protein, 8.99e10.0 g 100 g1 product in the oxidation of acetate in the citric acid cycle (Milsom,
protein, 8.93e9.60 g 100 g1 protein and 16.2 g 100 g1 protein, 1987), was determined as 274.29 mg 100 g1 in the camel yoghurt,
respectively. In this context, in addition to the variability of the while it was found as 314.88 mg 100 g1 in the cow yoghurt,
amino acid profiles of different animal milk types used as raw 288.13 mg 100 g1 in the sheep yoghurt, 279.42 mg 100 g1 in the
materials in the current research, differences in heat treatment, buffalo yoghurt, and 274.63 mg 100 g1 in the goat yoghurt, in the
fermentation and microorganism activities are thought to be current research. Citric acid, which is found at an average level of
effective in the amino acid profiles of experimental yoghurt 0.2% in milk, is characterised as a natural organic acid found mostly
samples. in fruits and vegetables (Ndhlala, Kavaz Yüksel, & Yüksel, 2022).
Wang et al. (2023) reported in their research that the essential Hippuric acid produced by starter cultures during fermentation
amino acid/total amino acid ratio of yoghurt samples was over 40% is essentially one of the non-protein nitrogen compounds of milk.
and if the essential amino acid/total amino acid value is above this After hippuric acid is produced in fermentation, it turns into ben-
ratio, they can have ideal protein standards recommended by the zoic acid and this transformation has an effect on the shelf life of
Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)/World Health Organisa- yoghurt (Fernandez-Garcia & McGregor, 1994; Heller, 2001; Qi,
tion (WHO). In this context, while the essential amino acid/total Hong, Liang, & Liu, 2009). In the present study, it was determined
amino acid ratio in the camel yoghurt was determined as 53.65%, it that the hippuric acid contents of the yoghurt samples produced
was determined as 53.57% in the sheep yoghurt, 53.55% in the goat from different milk types were statistically similar. Hippuric acid
yoghurt, 53.50% in the buffalo yoghurt, and 51.66% in the cow content, which was determined as 0.40 mg 100 g1 in the camel
yoghurt. As a result, yoghurt is a potential source that can eliminate yoghurt, was determined as 0.39 mg 100 g1 in the cow, goat, and
dietary deficiencies with its high biological value protein content sheep yoghurt samples, and 0.36 mg 100 g1 in the buffalo yoghurt.
and essential amino acids. Lactic acid, which is formed by the use of glucose or fructose by
The most common bioactivity in peptides identified in dairy lactic acid bacteria, causes an acidic and sharp taste in the product.
products is expressed as ACE inhibitory activity (Nielsen, Jakobsen, The formation of lactic acid, which is the main organic acid of
Geiker, & Bertram, 2022). ACE plays a role in the treatment of hy- yoghurt, begins with the transport of lactose into the cell with the
pertension by inhibiting the vasoconstrictor angiotensin II secre- phosphotransferase enzyme by S. thermophilus and L. delbrueckii
tion and preventing the breakdown of the vasodilator bradykinin. subsp. bulgaricus and its breakdown into glucose and galactose by
The ACE inhibitory activity of yoghurt is provided by the proteolytic the b-D-galactosidase enzyme. Afterward, glucose is converted to
activities of lactic acid bacteria during fermentation (Garavand, pyruvic acid by the way of Embden Meyerhof and Parnas (EMP),
Daly, & Go mez-Mascaraque, 2022; Hermanto, Hatiningsih, & and lactic acid is formed from the formed pyruvic acid by the lactate
Putera, 2018; Sultan, Huma, Butt, & Shahid, 2017). dehydrogenase enzyme. It is reported that lactic acid, which has a
The ACE inhibitory activity of the camel yoghurt was deter- significant effect on the sensory properties of yoghurt, has opti-
mined as 41.54%, while it was determined as 39.64% in the sheep mum sensory properties if it is present at the level of 7e9 mg g1
yoghurt, 36.21% in the buffalo yoghurt, 35.32% in the goat yoghurt, (Deshwal, Tiwari, Kumar, Raman, & Kadyan, 2021; Silva et al.,
and 33.15% in the cow yoghurt. In addition to protein content, 2023). It was determined that the yoghurts produced in this
amino acid content also has a significant effect on ACE inhibitory study contained lactic acid at a level close to this value. In our study,
activity in yoghurt. ACE inhibitory activity in yoghurt is formed by lactic acid, which is the dominant organic acid, was determined at
the proteolytic activity of lactic acid bacteria during fermentation. the level of 926.50 mg 100 g1 in the camel yoghurt, while it was
However, amino acids located at the C-terminal residue of peptides determined as 966.86 mg 100 g1 in the sheep yoghurt, 947.86 mg
with ACE inhibitory activity have a key role in binding to ACE. In 100 g1 in the goat yoghurt, 932.06 mg 100 g1 in the buffalo
this context, it has been reported that bioactive peptides with ACE yoghurt, and 925.12 mg 100 g1 in the cow yoghurt. On the other
inhibitory activity exhibit an effective activity when hydrophobic hand, it was determined that the lactic acid content of the yoghurts
amino acids such as proline, valine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and produced using different animal milk types was statistically not
tyrosine are present at the C-terminal. It was also emphasised that different from each other (P > 0.05). This shows that all yoghurts
the presence of positively charged lysine at the C-terminal of the produced are similar in terms of sensory properties.
peptide resulted in a high ACE inhibitory activity (Alhaj, 2017; Shi, Orotic acid, which occurs as an intermediate product in pyrim-
Ahtesh, Mathai, McAinch, & Su, 2017). As a matter of fact, in the idine biosynthesis, is present at significant levels in the milk of
current research, the highest ACE inhibitory activity was detected ruminant animals. It is reported that orotic acid, which is effective
in camel yoghurt, which contains the highest proportion of proline, in reducing the incidence of cholesterolemia, also has a stimulating
lysine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan, which are amino acids that effect on the growth of yoghurt bacteria (Fernandez-Garcia &
play an active role in ACE inhibitory activity, and ACE inhibitory McGregor, 1994; Ndhlala et al., 2022; Urbiene_ & Leskauskaite, _
activity values were listed in parallel with these amino acid con- 2006). In the present study, the highest orotic acid content was
tents in all yoghurts. determined in the camel yoghurt (118.09 mg 100 g1), followed
6
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

Table 4
The organic acid profile (mg 100 g1) of the experimental yoghurt samples.a

Acid Yoghurt Sig.

Buffalo Camel Cow Goat Sheep

Citric acid 279.42 ± 8.16b 274.29 ± 1.77b 314.88 ± 3.34a 274.63 ± 4.04b 288.13 ± 6.01b **
Hippuric acid 0.36 ± 0.00a 0.40 ± 0.00a 0.39 ± 0.01a 0.39 ± 0.00a 0.39 ± 0.03a ns
Lactic acid 932.06 ± 24.33a 926.50 ± 5.86a 925.12 ± 23.14a 947.86 ± 14.95a 966.86 ± 17.95a ns
Orotic acid 112.26 ± 2.93ab 118.09 ± 6.11a 106.06 ± 4.55b 61.35 ± 1.71d 73.54 ± 2.61c **
Pyruvic acid 23.13 ± 2.38a 21.37 ± 1.68a 22.31 ± 0.51a 21.08 ± 1.21a 22.05 ± 1.85a ns
Tartaric acid 0.92 ± 0.04a 0.92 ± 0.04a 0.88 ± 0.01a 0.89 ± 0.01a 0.90 ± 0.03a ns
Uric acid 18.04 ± 2.57a 15.65 ± 2.74a 17.81 ± 3.71a 13.67 ± 1.02a 16.47 ± 3.10a ns
a
Different superscript letters in a column indicate significant differences: **, P < 0.01; ns, P > 0.05; Sig., significance.

by  buffalo yoghurt (112.26 mg 100 g1)  cow yoghurt texture analysis and yield stress t0, consistency k, and flow index
(106.06 mg 100 g1) > sheep yoghurt (73.54 mg 100 g1) > goat parameters for rheology analysis were investigated during the
yoghurt (61.35 mg 100 g1). Pyruvic acid, which is produced by storage period. The textural and rheological properties of the buf-
carbohydrate and protein metabolism, can be transformed into falo, camel, cow, goat, and sheep yoghurt samples are given in
lactic acid or some other metabolites with further reactions Table 5.
(Ndhlala et al., 2022). It was determined that the pyruvic acid The use of different animal milk types in yoghurt production
contents of the yoghurts produced in the present study did not and the storage period had a very significant effect (P < 0.01) on the
show a statistical difference (P > 0.05). At the same time, in the firmness, consistency, and cohesiveness parameters. In yoghurt
present study, it was determined that the yoghurt samples pro- samples, the firmness value, which expresses the maximum
duced from different milk types were not statistically different from compression force on the probe of the device, the consistency
each other in terms of tartaric acid and uric acid contents. value, which describes the lower area of the curve that occurs in
It has been reported that differences in organic acid content can forward extrusion, and the cohesiveness value, which describes the
be seen in different animal milk types. Buffa, Guamis, Saldo, and maximum force that occurs when the probe is pulled, were
Trujillo (2004) reported that the amount of citric acid in goat determined at the highest level in the sheep yoghurt and the lowest
milk was 37.2 mg kg1 total solids, the amount of lactic acid was level in the goat yoghurt. Hovjecki et al. (2021) reported that the
303.4 mg kg1 total solids, the amount of pyruvic acid was denaturation of serum proteins due to heat treatment in yoghurt
0.5 mg kg1 total solids and the amount of uric acid was samples changed gel firmness and the interaction of serum proteins
0.5 mg kg1 total solids. Haddadin, Gammoh, and Robinson (2008) and casein micelles. In the texture analysis of the yoghurt samples,
reported that the average amount of orotic acid in camel milk was the overall parameter values examined were determined to in-
76.1 mg L1, the amount of hippuric acid was 10.2 mg L1, the crease as the storage time increased. It is thought that these in-
amount of citric acid was 846 mg L1 and the amount of pyruvic creases in the storage process of yoghurt are due to the
acid was 5.4 mg L1. Rodrigues (2013) reported that the orotic acid combination of microgels to form new structures (Gilbert &
content of buffalo milk was 19.6 mg 100 mL1, while orotic acid Turgeon, 2021). On the other hand, the high total solids and pro-
content of cow milk was 52.6 mg 100 mL1. tein content in yoghurt increases water binding, leading to a
It is reported that the organic acids found in yoghurt contribute stronger protein network, and as a result, an increase in firmness
to microbial safety as natural protective components, as well as value occurs (Basiri, Tajbakhsh, & Shekarforoush, 2022).
contribute to sensory properties with their natural aromas and In the current study, it is thought that total solids and protein
their transformation into various aroma components such as al- content are effective in exhibiting better textural properties of
dehydes, ketones, and alcohols by advanced reactions (Batista et al., sheep yoghurt. On the other hand, the weak textural properties in
2017; Ve nica, Perotti, & Bergamini, 2014). It has been reported that goat yoghurt are thought to be due to the fact that goat milk con-
organic acids such as lactic acid and pyruvic acid are formed tains lower levels of aS1-casein, the b-casein solubility is higher, the
through bacterial metabolism, while organic acids such as citric sedimentation rate of casein micelles is low, the calcium and
acid, orotic acid, and uric acid are formed through the biochemical phosphorus content is higher, and its thermal stability is low
metabolism of the animal (Ve nica et al., 2014). As in the studies compared with other milk types (Moschopoulou et al., 2018). In
conducted on the organic acid profile in yoghurts (Batista et al., general, it is thought that factors such as milk type, starter culture,
2017; Silva et al., 2023), it was determined that lactic acid is the heat treatment, fermentation, and storage conditions that affect the
dominant organic acid in the current study. Khaliq et al. (2022) gel structure play a role in the differences in the textural properties
reported that the citric acid content in camel yoghurt varied be- of yoghurt samples (Costa et al., 2015).
tween 6042 and 8589 mg L1 and the lactic acid content varied It was determined that the use of different animal milk types in
between 6918 and 6996 mg L1. Ale et al. (2023) determined the the yoghurt production had a very significant effect (P < 0.01) on
contents of lactic acid, orotic, and citric acid as 543 mg 100 g1, yield stress t0 and consistency k values, while it did not have a
24 mg 100 g1, and 140 mg 100 g1, respectively, in yoghurt sam- significant effect (P > 0.05) on the flow index value. It was deter-
ples produced using S. thermophilus and L. delbrueckii subsp. bul- mined that the storage period had a very significant effect (P < 0.01)
garicus cultures. However, it is thought that the starter culture type, on yield stress t0, while it was found that it did not have a signif-
milk type, additives, fermentation, and storage conditions are icant effect (P > 0.05) on consistency k and flow index values. In the
effective in the differences between the studies in the literature and present study, the highest yield stress t0 value was determined in
the current research data (Ve nica et al., 2014). the sheep and buffalo yoghurts; the highest consistency k value
was determined in the sheep yoghurt, and the lowest yield stress t0
3.5. Textural and rheological properties and consistency k values were determined in the goat yoghurt.
Yield stress t0, which is characterised as one of the characteristic
In the yoghurt samples produced from different animal milk features of yoghurt included in the class of pseudoplastic products,
types, firmness, consistency, and cohesiveness parameters for is expressed as a function of the increase in the slip rate. Also, yield
7
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

Table 5
The textural and rheological analyses of the experimental yoghurt samples.a

Parameter Firmness (N) Consistency (N s) Cohesiveness (N) Yield stress t0 (Pa) Consistency index, k (Pa sn) Flow index, n

Yoghurt type
Buffalo 3.56 ± 0.24b 34.04 ± 2.06b 2.13 ± 0.06b 5.81 ± 0.32a 6.03 ± 0.22b 0.27 ± 0.03a
Camel 2.30 ± 0.17d 26.06 ± 2.41d 1.54 ± 0.14d 4.32 ± 0.21c 5.20 ± 0.08d 0.27 ± 0.03a
Cow 3.14 ± 0.29c 32.62 ± 2.35c 1.71 ± 0.16c 5.05 ± 0.52b 5.49 ± 0.13c 0.27 ± 0.02a
Goat 1.68 ± 0.25e 18.14 ± 2.11e 1.25 ± 0.12e 0.79 ± 0.13d 4.16 ± 0.31e 0.26 ± 0.03a
Sheep 4.12 ± 0.22a 38.99 ± 2.27a 2.25 ± 0.07a 6.07 ± 0.23a 6.34 ± 0.10a 0.27 ± 0.02a
Sig. ** ** ** ** ** ns
Storage period (days)
1 2.76 ± 0.92c 27.73 ± 7.76c 1.74 ± 0.43b 4.64 ± 2.13a 5.50 ± 0.77a 0.27 ± 0.02a
7 2.92 ± 0.95b 29.84 ± 7.56b 1.76 ± 0.40b 4.39 ± 1.97b 5.40 ± 0.78a 0.26 ± 0.02a
14 3.20 ± 0.91a 32.34 ± 7.64a 1.83 ± 0.38a 4.19 ± 1.96b 5.43 ± 0.89a 0.26 ± 0.03a
Sig. ** ** ** ** ns ns
a
Different superscript letters in a column indicate significant differences: **, P < 0.01; ns, P > 0.05; Sig., significance.

stress t0 characterises an interactive or cross-linked structure P < 0.01), valine (r ¼ 0.766, P < 0.01), asparagine (r ¼ 0.659,
(Costa et al., 2019). P < 0.05), proline (r ¼ 0.959, P < 0.01).
The value of flow index n, which expresses the degree of non- Chamata, Watson, and Jauregi (2020) reported that dipeptides
Newtonian fluid properties, characterises the fluid that exhibits containing positively charged amino acids such as arginine and
slip thinning (pseudoplastic) when it is <1, while it characterises lysine and hydrophobic amino acids such as phenylalanine, tryp-
the fluid that thickens with shear when it is >1 (Delgado et al., tophan, and valine have strong ACE inhibitory activity. In addition,
2020). In this context, the fact that the flow index n value of all the researchers emphasised that tripeptides with aromatic amino
yoghurt samples produced from different animal milk types in the acids at the C-terminal, positively charged amino acids in the
current research is <1 supports that the yoghurt produced behaves middle of the chain and hydrophobic amino acids at the N-terminal
as a non-Newtonian liquid exhibiting pseudoplastic behaviour. It is exhibit stronger ACE inhibitory activity. They also mentioned that
reported that the orientation of components such as protein and fat the presence of proline or hydrophobic amino acids at the carboxyl
towards the direction of liquid movement is also effective in end of the chain results in both strong and digest-resistant ACE
reducing the resistance to flow in yoghurt (Costa et al., 2015). inhibitory activity.
A positive correlation between was determined between
3.6. Correlation analysis and discrimination of yoghurt samples cholesterol content and total solid content (r ¼ 0.946, P < 0.01), fat
using PCA content (r ¼ 0.932, P < 0.01), protein content (r ¼ 0.955, P < 0.01),
P
ash content (r ¼ 0.945, P < 0.01), SFA (r ¼ 0.968, P < 0.01), and
Correlation analysis of various physicochemical, biochemical, firmness (r ¼ 0.662, P < 0.05), while a negative correlation was
textural, and rheological properties of the yoghurt samples is per- determined between cholesterol content and stearic acid
P
formed inSupplementary material Fig. S1. A positive correlation (r ¼ 0.751, P < 0.05), and MUFA (r ¼ 0.635, P < 0.05). There are
was determined between total solid and fat content (r ¼ 0.994, several studies in the literature that indicate a positive correlation
P < 0.01), protein content (r ¼ 0.917, P < 0.01), ash content between fat content and cholesterol content in dairy products.
P Talpur, Bhanger, and Memon (2008) reported that the cholesterol
(r ¼ 0.915, P < 0.01), SFA content (r ¼ 0.836, P < 0.01), cholesterol
(r ¼ 0.946, P < 0.01), leucine (r ¼ 0.818, P < 0.01), asparagine content in dairy products was positively correlated with the fat
(r ¼ 0.864, P < 0.01), firmness (r ¼ 0.826, P < 0.01), consistency content of the milk used in production. Voblikova, Permyakov,
(r ¼ 0.753, P < 0.05), cohesiveness (r ¼ 0.742, P < 0.05), consistency Rostova, Masyutina, and Eliseeva (2020) reported that the rela-
index k (r ¼ 0.790, P < 0.01), while a negative correlation was tionship between polyunsaturated fatty acids and saturated fatty
determined between total solid and stearic acid content acids can be used as a factor on the cholesterol level in the blood
(r ¼ 0.790, P < 0.01), linoleic acid (r ¼ 0.677, P < 0.05), methi- plasma, and that cholesterol and saturated fatty acids are directly
onine (r ¼ 0.784, P < 0.01), aspartic acid (r ¼ 0.707, P < 0.05). It related.
has been shown by various studies that the physicochemical PCA was applied to illustrate the differences between the
properties of yoghurt are related to the gel microstructure and that yoghurt samples by evaluation of their various physicochemical,
fat, protein, ash and firmness values increase proportionally as the biochemical, textural, and rheological properties. The score scat-
total solids ratio increases in yoghurt (Terziog
lu & Bakırcı, 2023; terplot, dendrogram (hierarchical clustering), loading scatter plot,
Yeganehzad, Mazaheri-Tehrani, & Shahidi, 2007). In addition, a and biplot for the yoghurt samples are shown in Fig. 1AeD,
positive correlation was stated between fat globule diameter and respectively.
gel formation, and it was stated that yoghurts produced from milk The first two principal components (PC1 ¼ 35.2% and PC2 ¼ 34%)
types with smaller fat globule diameter, such as goat milk, had a accounted for 69.2% of the variance. The buffalo and sheep yoghurts
lower firmness value (Vargas, Ch afer, Albors, Chiralt, & Gonz alez- were well separated from other yoghurts (Fig. 1A), indicating that
Martínez, 2008). they had some differences. It was also determined that cow and
There was a negative correlation between ACE inhibitory ac- goat yoghurts showed similar properties with each other, buffalo
tivity and titratable acidity (r ¼ 0.935, P < 0.01), oleic acid and sheep yoghurts with each other, on the other hand, camel
P yoghurt showed different properties from buffalo and sheep yo-
(r ¼ 0.974, P < 0.01), MUFA (r ¼ 0.719, P < 0.05), isoleucine
(r ¼ 0.787, P < 0.01), methionine (r ¼ 0.831, P < 0.01), alanine ghurts and similar properties to cow and goat yoghurts (Fig. 1B).
P
(r ¼ 0.652, P < 0.05), serine (r ¼ 0.758, P < 0.05), while there was Total solid, fat, protein, ash, SFA, cholesterol, leucine, asparagine,
a positive correlation between ACE inhibitory activity and pH firmness, consistency, cohesiveness, and consistency index k were
P clustered together at the lower right side of the plot, indicating that
(r ¼ 0.961, P < 0.01), myristic acid (r ¼ 0.825, P < 0.01), PUFA
(r ¼ 0.684, P < 0.05), arginine (r ¼ 0.658, P < 0.05), lysine (r ¼ 0.972, there was a positive correlation between them (Fig. 1C). ACE, pH,
P
P < 0.01), phenylalanine (r ¼ 0.929, P < 0.01), tryptophan (r ¼ 0.969, myristic acid, PUFA, arginine, lysine, phenylalanine, tryptophan,

8
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

Fig. 1. Score scatter plot (A), dendrogram (hierarchical clustering) (B), loading scatter plot (C) and biplot (D) of PCA analysis (PC1 versus PC2) for the components in the yoghurts.

valine, asparagine, proline were clustered together at the lower left 4. Conclusion
side of the plot, indicating that there was a positive correlation
P
between them (Fig. 1C). Total solid, fat, protein, ash, SFA, In the current study, physicochemical and biochemical proper-
cholesterol, were located at the lower right side of the plot, indi- ties (fatty acid composition, cholesterol content, amino acid profile,
cating that sheep yoghurt and buffalo yoghurt contained higher ACE inhibitory activity, and organic acid profile), textural and
levels of these components compared with the other yoghurt rheological properties of the camel yoghurt and the yoghurts pro-
P
samples (Fig. 1D). Titratable acidity, oleic acid, MUFA, histidine, duced with 4 different animal milk types (buffalo, cow, goat, and
methionine, serine, and citric acid were clustered together, indi- sheep) were determined and compared with each other.
cating that cow yoghurt contained higher levels of these compo- Significant differences were observed in the yoghurts produced
nents compared with the other yoghurt samples (Fig. 1D). In with different animal milk types in terms of the properties exam-
addition, pH, myristic acid, arginine, phenylalanine, ACE inhibitory ined, and it was evaluated that these differences were largely due to
activity were clustered together, indicating that camel yoghurt the composition of the milk and fermentation. It was determined
contained higher levels of these components compared with the that the richest yoghurt sample in terms of total solids, fat, and
other yoghurt samples (Fig. 1D). protein content was sheep yoghurt, while the lowest content in
As a matter of fact, there are studies revealing that buffalo and terms of these components was found in cow yoghurt. When the
sheep milk and yoghurts produced from these milk sources exhibit fatty acid composition and cholesterol content were assessed, the
P
similar properties in terms of physicochemical properties (total highest SFA and cholesterol content were found in the sheep
P P
solid content, fat content, protein content, ash content, pH and yoghurt, MUFA content in the cow yoghurt, and PUFA content
titratable acidity value) associated with the nutritional, textural, in the goat yoghurt. The lowest CLA content was determined in the
and rheological properties of the final product (Boukria et al., 2020; sheep yoghurt.
Terziog
lu & Bakırcı, 2023). On the other hand, it is determined that In the yoghurt samples, it was determined that the most
cow and goat milk and the yoghurts produced from cow and goat dominant essential amino acid was leucine, and the most dominant
milk have similar values in terms of total solids content, fat content, non-essential amino acid was glutamic acid. The ACE inhibitor ac-
protein content, pH and titratable acidity value (Balthazar et al., tivity value associated with amino acids such as proline, phenyl-
2016; Terziog
lu, 2022). Khalifa and Zakaria (2019) reported that alanine, and tryptophan, along with bioactive peptides, came to the
camel and goat yoghurts showed relatively similar properties fore in camel yoghurt, which contains these amino acids at the
compared with buffalo yoghurt in their research examining the highest level. It was determined that the produced yoghurts did not
physicochemical properties of buffalo, camel and goat yoghurts. have a significant difference in terms of lactic acid content, which is

9
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

the most dominant organic acid. The highest firmness, consistency, Basiri, S., Tajbakhsh, S., & Shekarforoush, S. S. (2022). Fortification of stirred yoghurt
with mucilage-free flaxseed and its physicochemical, microbial, textural and
cohesiveness, yield stress t0, and consistency index values were
sensory properties. International Dairy Journal, 131, Article 105384.
determined in the sheep yoghurt. Batista, A. L. D., Silva, R., Cappato, L. P., Ferreira, M. V. S., Nascimento, K. O.,
To sum up, when a general evaluation is made, it has been Schmiele, M., et al. (2017). Developing a synbiotic fermented milk using pro-
observed that yoghurt, which already has unique properties, gains biotic bacteria and organic green banana flour. Journal of Functional Foods, 38,
242e250.
different physicochemical, biochemical, textural, and rheological Boukria, O., El Hadrami, E. M., Sameen, A., Sahar, A., Khan, S., Safarov, J., et al. (2020).
properties by obtaining it from different animal milk types, and it Biochemical, physicochemical and sensory properties of yoghurts made from
seems attractive to use different types of milk to increase its mixing milks of different mammalian species. Foods, 9, Article 1722.
Boz, H. (2012). The effects of wheat flour, sucrose syrup, glucose syrup and cooking
functionality. time on chemical, textural and sensorial properties of mulberry leather (pestil)
(PhD thesis). Erzurum, Türkiye: Atatürk University.
Buffa, M., Guamis, B., Saldo, J., & Trujillo, A. J. (2004). Changes in organic acids
Author contributions during ripening of cheeses made from raw, pasteurized or high-pressure-
treated goats' milk. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 37, 247e253.
€ o
Çelik, S., Gerçek, Y. C., Ozk €k, A., & Ecem Bayram, N. (2022). Organic acids and their
Conceptualization, M.E.T.; methodology, M.E.T., I.B., E.O., and
derivatives: Minor components of bee pollen, bee bread, royal jelly and bee
F.O.; validation, M.E.T., and F.O.; formal analysis, M.E.T; investiga-
venom. European Food Research and Technology, 248, 3037e3057.
tion, M.E.T., I.B., E.O., C.B., T.H., R.A., and F.O.; data curation, M.E.T.; Chamata, Y., Watson, K. A., & Jauregi, P. (2020). Whey-derived peptides interactions
writingdoriginal draft preparation, M.E.T., I.B., E.O., C.B., T.H., R.A., with ACE by molecular docking as a potential predictive tool of natural ACE
inhibitors. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21, Article 864.
M.R.K., T.E., R.M.A., and F.O.; writingdreview and editing, M.E.T.,
Claeys, W. L., Verraes, C., Cardoen, S., De Block, J., Huyghebaert, A., Raes, K., et al.
I.B., E.O., C.B., T.H., R.A., M.R.K., T.E., R.M.A., and F.O.; visualization, (2014). Consumption of raw or heated milk from different species: An eval-
M.E.T. and F.O.; supervision, M.E.T., and F.O.; project administration, uation of the nutritional and potential health benefits. Food Control, 42,
M.E.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of 188e201.
Costa, M. P., Frasao, B. S., Silva, A. C. O., Freitas, M. Q., Franco, R. M., & Conte-
the manuscript. Junior, C. A. (2015). Cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum) pulp, probiotic, and
prebiotic: Influence on color, apparent viscosity, and texture of goat milk yo-
ghurts. Journal of Dairy Science, 98, 5995e6003.
Declaration of competing interest Costa, M. F., Pimentel, T. C., Guimaraes, J. T., Balthazar, C. F., Rocha, R. S.,
Cavalcanti, R. N., et al. (2019). Impact of prebiotics on the rheological charac-
The authors have no conflict of interest. teristics and volatile compounds of Greek yoghurt. LWT-Food Science and
Technology, 105, 371e376.
Cushman, D. W., & Cheung, H. S. (1971). Spectrophotometric assay and properties of
Data availability the angiotensin-converting enzyme of rabbit lung. Biochemical Pharmacology,
20, 1637e1648.
Delgado, K., Vieira, C., Dammak, I., Frasa ~o, B., Brígida, A., Costa, M., et al. (2020).
Data will be made available on request.
Different ultrasound exposure times influence the physicochemical and mi-
crobial quality properties in probiotic goat milk yoghurt. Molecules, 25, Article
Acknowledgements 4638.
Deshwal, G. K., Tiwari, S., Kumar, A., Raman, R. K., & Kadyan, S. (2021). Review on
factors affecting and control of post-acidification in yoghurt and related prod-
The authors would like to thank the support provided by Ata- ucts. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 109, 499e512.
turk University (Türkiye), RMIT University (Australia), Riddet El Zubeir, I. E. M., Basher, M. A. E., Alameen, M. H., Mohammed, M. A. S., &
Shuiep, E. S. (2012). The processing properties, chemical characteristics and
Institute (New Zealand), Wageningen University & Research (the acceptability of yoghurt made from non bovine milks. Livestock Research for
Netherlands), FrieslandCampina (the Netherlands), Polish Academy Rural Development, 24, Article 50.
of Sciences (Poland), the Researchers Supporting Project number El-Hanafy, A. A., Saad, Y. M., Alkarim, S. A., Almehdar, H. A., Alzahrani, F. M.,
Almatry, M. A., et al. (2023). Yield and composition variations of the milk from
(RSP2023R138), King Saud University (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia), Qatar different camel breeds in Saudi Arabia. Sci, 5, Article 2.
University (Qatar), and University of Agriculture (Pakistan) for the Fernandez-Garcia, E., & McGregor, J. U. (1994). Determination of organic acids
preparation of this manuscript. during the fermentation and cold storage of yogurt. Journal of Dairy Science, 77,
2934e2939.
Fletouris, D. J., Botsoglou, N. A., Psomas, I. E., & Mantis, A. I. (1998). Rapid deter-
Appendix A. Supplementary data mination of cholesterol in milk and milk products by direct saponification and
capillary gas chromatography. Journal of Dairy Science, 81, 2833e2840.
Galeboe, O., Seifu, E., & Sekwati-Monang, B. (2018). Production of camel milk
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at yoghurt: Physicochemical and microbiological quality and consumer accept-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2023.105749. ability. International Journal of Food Studies, 7, 51e63.
Garavand, F., Daly, D. F., & Go  mez-Mascaraque, L. G. (2022). Biofunctional, struc-
tural, and tribological attributes of GABA-enriched probiotic yoghurts con-
References taining Lacticaseibacillus paracasei alone or in combination with prebiotics.
International Dairy Journal, 129, Article 105348.
n
Ale, E. C., Iba ~ ez, R. A., Wilbanks, D. J., Peralta, G. H., Ceylan, F. D., Binetti, A. G., et al. Germani, A., Luneia, R., Nigro, F., Vitiello, V., Donini, L. M., & Del Balzo, V. (2014). The
(2023). Technological role and metabolic profile of two probiotic EPS-producing yogurt amino acid profile's variation during the shelf-life. Annali di Igiene:
strains with potential application in yoghurt: Impact on rheology and release of Medicina Preventiva e di Comunita, 26, 205e212.
bioactive peptides. International Dairy Journal, 137, Article 105533. Gilbert, A., & Turgeon, S. L. (2021). Studying stirred yoghurt microstructure and its
Alhaj, O. A. (2017). Identification of potential ACE-inhibitory peptides from drom- correlation to physical properties: A review. Food Hydrocolloids, 121, Article
edary fermented camel milk. CyTA-Journal of Food, 15, 191e195. 106970.
Alichanidis, E., Moatsou, G., & Polychroniadou, A. (2016). Composition and prop- Gonza lez-Martınez, C., Becerra, M., Cha fer, M., Albors, A., Carot, J. M., & Chiralt, A.
erties of non-cow milk and products. In E. Tsakalidou, & K. Papadimitrou (Eds.), (2002). Influence of substituting milk powder for whey powder on yoghurt
Non-bovine milk and milk products (pp. 81e116). London, UK: Academic Press. quality. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 13, 334e340.
Arslaner, A., Salik, M. A., & Bakirci, I. (2021). The effects of adding Hibiscus sabdariffa Haddadin, M. S. Y., Gammoh, S. I., & Robinson, R. K. (2008). Seasonal variations in
L. flowers marmalade on some quality properties, mineral content and anti- the chemical composition of camel milk in Jordan. Journal of Dairy Research, 75,
oxidant activities of yoghurt. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 58, 8e12.
223e233. Heller, K. J. (2001). Probiotic bacteria in fermented foods: Product characteristics
Atila, A., Alay, H., Yaman, M. E., Akman, T. C., Cadirci, E., Bayrak, B., et al. (2021). The and starter organisms. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73, 374se379s.
serum amino acid profile in COVID-19. Amino Acids, 53, 1569e1588. Hermanto, S., Hatiningsih, F., & Putera, D. K. (2018). Antihypertensive bioactive
Balthazar, C. F., Júnior, C. C., Moraes, J., Costa, M. P., Raices, R. S. L., Franco, R. M., et al. peptides from hydrolysates of soy milk yoghurt (soygurt). Journal of Physics:
(2016). Physicochemical evaluation of sheep milk yogurts containing different Conference Series, 1095, Article 012034.
levels of inulin. Journal of Dairy Science, 99, 4160e4168. Hovjecki, M., Miloradovic, Z., Mirkovic, N., Radulovic, A., Pudja, P., & Miocinovic, J.
Barłowska, J., Szwajkowska, M., Litwin  czuk, Z., & Krol, J. (2011). Nutritional value (2021). Rheological and textural properties of goat's milk set-type yoghurt as
and technological suitability of milk from various animal species used for dairy affected by heat treatment, transglutaminase addition and storage. Journal of
production. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 10, 291e302. the Science of Food and Agriculture, 101, 5898e5906.

10
 _ Bakırcı, E. Oz et al.
M.E. Terziog
lu, I. International Dairy Journal 146 (2023) 105749

Karakus, M. S., Akgul, F. Y., Korkmaz, A., & Atasoy, A. F. (2022). Evaluation of fatty Satchithanandam, S., Fritsche, J., & Rader, J. I. (2001). Extension of AOAC Official
acids, free fatty acids and textural properties of butter and sadeyag (anhydrous Method 996.01 to the analysis of Standard Reference Material (SRM) 1846 and
butter fat) produced from ovine and bovine cream and yoghurt. International infant formulas. Journal of AOAC International, 84, 805e813.
Dairy Journal, 126, Article 105229. Seçkin, A. K., Gursoy, O., Kinik, O., & Akbulut, N. (2005). Conjugated linoleic acid
Kavas, G., & Kınık, O. € (2005). Inek
_ sütü ve peynir suyu proteinindeki esansiyel (CLA) concentration, fatty acid composition and cholesterol content of some
amino asitlerin beyin fonksiyonları, psikiyatrik hastalıklar ve süte uygulanan Turkish dairy products. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 38, 909e915.
teknolojik parametrelerle olan ilişkileri. Gıda, 30, 173e179. Serafeimidou, A., Zlatanos, S., Kritikos, G., & Tourianis, A. (2013). Change of fatty acid
Khalifa, M. I., & Zakaria, A. M. (2019). Physiochemical, sensory characteristics and profile, including conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content, during refrigerated
acceptability of a new set yoghurt developed from camel and goat milk mixed storage of yogurt made of cow and sheep milk. Journal of Food Composition and
with buffalo milk. Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 7, 172e177. Analysis, 31, 24e30.
Khaliq, A., Ahsan, S., Liaqat, A., Chughtai, M. F. J., Mehmood, T., Farooq, M. A., et al. Shi, M., Ahtesh, F., Mathai, M., McAinch, A. J., & Su, X. Q. (2017). Effects of
(2022). Physiochemical, rheological and organoleptic assessment of camel milk fermentation conditions on the potential anti-hypertensive peptides released
yogurt prepared from various locations of Punjab-Pakistan. Journal of Microbi- from yoghurt fermented by Lactobacillus helveticus and Flavourzyme. Interna-
ology, Biotechnology and Food Sciences, 11, Article e7560. tional Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52, 137e145.
Kumar, H., Bhardwaj, K., Cruz-Martins, N., Sharma, R., Siddiqui, S. A., Dhanjal, D. S., Silva, F. A., do Egypto Queiroga, R. D. C. R., de Souza, E. L., Voss, G. B.,
et al. (2022). Phyto-enrichment of yoghurt to control hypercholesterolemia: A Pintado, M. M. E., & da Silva Vasconcelos, M. A. (2023). Ingredients from integral
functional approach. Molecules, 27, Article 3479. valorization of Isabel grape to formulate goat yoghurt with stimulatory effects
Landi, N., Ragucci, S., & Di Maro, A. (2021). Amino acid composition of milk from on probiotics and beneficial impacts on human colonic microbiota in vitro. Food
cow, sheep and goat raised in Ailano and Valle Agricola, two localities of ‘Alto Science and Human Wellness, 12, 1331e1342.
Casertano’ (Campania Region). Foods, 10, Article 2431. Soliman, G. A. (2018). Dietary cholesterol and the lack of evidence in cardiovascular
Maduka, H. C. C., Maduka, A. A., Ugwu, C. E., & Mukthari, I. (2013). Amino acid disease. Nutrients, 10, 780.
profile and elemental compositions of some commercially produced fermented Sultan, S., Huma, N., Butt, M. S., & Shahid, M. (2017). Antihypertensive and anti-
milk (yoghurt) in Maiduguri Metropolis of Nigeria. British Journal of Dairy Sci- oxidative potential of water soluble peptide fraction from different yoghurts.
ences, 3, 9e13. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 41, Article e12979.
Mantzourani, C., Batsika, C. S., Kokotou, M. G., & Kokotos, G. (2022). Free fatty acid Talpur, F. N., Bhanger, M. I., & Memon, N. N. (2008). Fatty acid composition with
profiling of Greek yoghurt by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass emphasis on conjugated linoleic acid [CLA] and cholesterol content of Pakistani
spectrometry (LC-HRMS) analysis. Food Research International, 160, Article 111751. dairy products. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 58, 313e320.
Milsom, P. E. (1987). Organic acids by fermentation, especially citric acid. In Terziog
lu, M. E. (2022a). Investigation of various properties of yoghurts produced by
R. D. King, & P. S. J. Cheetham (Eds.), Food biotechnology 1 (pp. 273e307). using different cow-goat milk combinations and starter cultures during storage
Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer Netherlands. (PhD thesis). Erzurum, Türkiye: Atatürk University.
Moschopoulou, E., Sakkas, L., Zoidou, E., Theodorou, G., Sgouridou, E., Kalathaki, C., Terziog _ (2023). Comparison of buffalo's, sheep's and goat's

lu, M. E., & Bakırcı, I.
et al. (2018). Effect of milk kind and storage on the biochemical, textural and yoghurts in terms of their antioxidant activity, angiotensin-converting
biofunctional characteristics of set-type yoghurt. International Dairy Journal, 77, enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity, volatile compound content and 5-
47e55. hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content. Medycyna Weterynaryjna, 79,
Nakamura, Y., Yamamoto, N., Sakai, K., Okubo, A., Yamazaki, S., & Takano, T. (1995). 148e152.
Purification and characterization of angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitors Terziog
lu, M. E., Yıldız Küçük, N., & Bakırcı, I. _ (2022b). The effect of pineapple
from sour milk. Journal of Dairy Science, 78, 777e783. addition at different rates to sheep yoghurt on antioxidant activity, 5-
Ndhlala, A. R., Kavaz Yüksel, A., & Yüksel, M. (2022). Nutritional supplementation of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content, and ABT-2 probiotic culture growth.
yoghurt with Jerusalem artichoke tubers: Organic acid profiles and quality Erzincan Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15(Special Issue on 4th In-
parameters. Plants, 11, Article 3086. ternational Conference on advanced Engineering Technologies), 84e97.
Nielsen, S. D., Jakobsen, L. M., Geiker, N. R., & Bertram, H. C. (2022). Chemically Urbiene,_ S., & Leskauskaite,_ D. (2006). Formation of some organic acids during
acidified, live and heat-inactivated fermented dairy yoghurt show distinct fermentation of milk. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Science, 15, 277e281.
bioactive peptides, free amino acids and small compounds profiles. Food Vargas, M., Ch afer, M., Albors, A., Chiralt, A., & Gonza lez-Martínez, C. (2008).
Chemistry, 376, Article 131919. Physicochemical and sensory characteristics of yoghurt produced from mix-
Ohlsson, L. (2010). Dairy products and plasma cholesterol levels. Food & Nutrition tures of cows' and goats' milk. International Dairy Journal, 18, 1146e1152.
Research, 54, Article 5124. Venica, C. I., Perotti, M. C., & Bergamini, C. V. (2014). Organic acids profiles in
Paszczyk, B., & Czarnowska-Kujawska, M. (2022). Fatty acid profile, conjugated lactose-hydrolyzed yoghurt with different matrix composition. Dairy Science &
linoleic acid content, and lipid quality indices in selected yoghurts available on Technology, 94, 561e580.
the Polish market. Animals, 12, Article 96. Voblikova, T., Permyakov, A., Rostova, A., Masyutina, G., & Eliseeva, A. (2020). In-
Qi, P., Hong, H., Liang, X., & Liu, D. (2009). Assessment of benzoic acid levels in milk fluence of the maturation process on the sheep's milk of Camembert cheese fatty
in China. Food Control, 20, 414e418. acid profile change, 2020 pp. 696e705). KnE Life Sciences.
Rai, A. K., Sanjukta, S., & Jeyaram, K. (2017). Production of angiotensin I converting Wang, L., Wu, T., Zhang, Y., Yang, K., He, Y., Deng, K., et al. (2023). Comparative
enzyme inhibitory (ACE-I) peptides during milk fermentation and their role in studies on the nutritional and physicochemical properties of yoghurts from
reducing hypertension. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 57, cows', goats', and camels' milk powder. International Dairy Journal, 138, Article
2789e2800. 105542.
Rodrigues, L. R. (2013). Milk minor constituents, enzymes, hormones, growth fac- Yeganehzad, S., Mazaheri-Tehrani, M., & Shahidi, F. (2007). Studying microbial,
tors, and organic acids. In Y. W. Park, & G. F. W. Haenlein (Eds.), Milk and dairy physiochemical and sensory properties of directly concentrated probiotic
products in human nutrition: Production, composition and health (pp. 220e245). yoghurt. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 2, 366e369.
Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Yeung, Y. K., Lee, Y. K., & Chang, Y. H. (2019). Physicochemical, microbial, and
Salih, M. M., & Hamid, O. I. A. (2013). Effect of fortifying camel's milk with skim milk rheological properties of yoghurt substituted with pectic polysaccharide
powder on the physicochemical, microbiological and sensory characteristics of extracted from Ulmus davidiana. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 43,
set yoghurt. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology, 5, 765e770. Article e13907.

11