Switching Circuits and Logic Design (CS21202)

Module 3
Switching Algebra and Properties

Prof. Indranil Sengupta

Dr. Monosij Maitra

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

IIT Kharagpur
Switching Algebra
Basic Concepts

• Switching Algebra:
• An algebraic system defined on the set {0, 1}, with two binary operations AND and
OR, and one unary operation NOT.
• AND operation, also called logical product, is denoted by ‘.’ or ‘∧’
• OR operation, also called logical sum, is denoted by ‘+’ or ‘∨’
• NOT operation, also called complement, is denoted by single-quote or ‘~’
• Switching Variables:
• Two-valued variables that can take on two distinct values 0 and 1.
• Switching Expressions:
• An expression consisting of switching variables, constants and operators.

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• Given a switching expression, how to prove it?
a) By verifying the expression for all possible values of the variables.
• Called truth table verification, or perfect induction.
b) By using algebraic manipulation using some rules.
• We first show some basic laws or rules of switching algebra, and use
perfect induction to verify them.
• Let x, y, z denote switching variables.

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 Basic Laws of Switching Algebra
• Basic identities: • Commutative Law:
x+1=1 x+y=y+x
x+0=x x.y=y.x
x.1=x • Complementation Law:
x.0=0 x + x’ = 1
• Idempotent Law: x . x’ = 0
x+x=x • Associative Law:
x.x=x (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
(x . y) . z = x . (y . z)

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Basic Laws of Switching Algebra (contd.)

• Distributive Law: • Consensus Theorem:

x . (y + z) = x . y + y . z x y + x’ z + y z = x y + x’ z
x + (y . z) = (x + y) . (x + z) (x + y) (x’ + z) (y + z) = (x + y) (x’ + z)
• Absorption Law: • Involution:
x + (x . y) = x (x’)’ = x
x . (x + y) = x
• Useful Law:
x + (x’ . y) = x + y
x . (x’ + y) = x . y

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Function Minimization

• Given a switching expression, we can simplify it by using the basic

laws of switching algebra.
• Reduce the number of terms.
• Reduce the number of literals.
• There are other rules of transforming switching expressions, which
shall be discussed later.
• De Morgan’s theorem, for example.

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Algebraic Manipulation
Principle of Duality

• Most of the rules discussed so far appear in pairs.

• Principle of duality states that:
• A switching expression T2 can be obtained from a given switching expression
T1 by interchanging the operations AND & OR, and constants 0 & 1.
• T1 and T2 are said to be dual of each other.
• Examples:
• x+1=1 is the dual of x.0=0
• x + x.y = x is the dual of x . (x + y) = x
• x + x’.y = x + y is the dual of x . (x’ + y) = x . y

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Simplification of Switching Expressions

• Important point to note:

x + y = x + z does not imply y = z
• A counterexample: x = 1, y = 0, z = 1
• What is the reason?
• Inverse operations are not defined in switching algebra; hence cancellations
are not allowed.

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Simplification Example 1

• F = A.B’ + A.B + B.C

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Simplification Example 2

• F = A’.B.C + A.B’.C + A.B.C’ + ABC

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Simplification Example 3

• F = A’.B + B’.C’ + A.B + B’.C

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De Morgan’s Theorems

• For two variables x and y, De Morgan’s theorems state that:

(x + y)’ = x’ . y’
(x . y)’ = x’ + y’

• Can be easily extended to any number of variables.

x y (x + y)’ x’ . y’ (x.y)’ x’ + y’
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
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Using De Morgan’s Theorem: Example 1

• F = (A + B)’ . (A’ + B’)

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Using De Morgan’s Theorem: Example 2

• F = (A . B’ + A’ . B)’

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Using De Morgan’s Theorem: Example 3

• F = (A B C’ + D)’ + (A B’ + B C’)’

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Using De Morgan’s Theorem: Example 4

• F = (A B C)’ (A + C) (A + C’)

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Using De Morgan’s Theorem: Example 5

• f (w, x, y) = w x’ y + w x + w y’ + w x y’

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Mapping Problems to Switching Expressions

A safe has five locks v, w, x, y and z, all of which must be unlocked for the safe to be
open. The keys to the locks are distributed among five security officers as follows:
• Officer A has keys for locks v and x
• Officer B has keys for locks v and y
• Officer C has keys for locks w and y
• Officer D has keys for locks x and z
• Officer E has keys for locks v and z
Find all combinations of security officers that can open the safe.

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Another Problem

Five soldiers A, B, C, D and E volunteer to perform a mission where the following

conditions must be satisfied:
• Either A or B or both must go.
• Either C or E, but not both, must go.
• Either both A and C go, or neither goes.
• If D goes, then E must also go.
• If B goes, then A and D must also go.

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Properties of Switching Functions
Minterm and Maxterm

• For a switching function, a literal is defined as a variable in uncomplemented

or complemented form.
• Example: x, x’, y, y’, etc.
• Consider an n-variable switching function f (x1, x2, …, xn).
• A product term (that is, an AND operation) of all the n literals is called a minterm.
• A sum term (that is, an OR operation) of all the n literals is called a maxterm.
• Consider a 3-variable function f (A, B, C).
• Examples of minterm: A’.B’.C’, A.B’.C, A.B.C, etc.
• Examples of maxterm: (A + B’ + C’), (A’ + B’ + C’), (A + B + C), etc.

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• Properties of minterms and maxterms:
• A minterm assumes value 1 for exactly one combination of variables.
• A maxterm assumes the value 0 for exactly one combination of variables.
• Example:

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• For a given switching function, and for given values of the input variables,
• All the minterms that have the value 1 are called true minterms.
• All the minterms that have the value 0 are called false minterms.
• All the maxterms that have the value 1 are called true maxterms.
• All the maxterms that have the value 0 are called false maxterms.

• Example:
f (x, y, z) = x’.y + x.y.z → True minterms are: x’.y.z’, x’.y.z, x.y.z
f (x, y, z) = (x + y) . (y +z) → True maxterms are: x+y+z, x+y+z’, x’+y+z

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 A Full Adder Example
• A full adder adds three bits A, B, C, and A B C S Cy
generates a sum S and a carry Cy. 0 0 0 0 0
S = A’.B’.C + A’.B.C’ + A.B’.C + A.B.C 0 0 1 1 0
Cy = A.B + B.C + C.A 0 1 0 1 0
• For the sum function S, true minterms are: 0 1 1 0 1
A’.B’.C, A’.B.C’, A.B’.C, A.B.C
1 0 0 1 0
• For the carry function Cy, true minterms are:
1 0 1 0 1
A’.B.C, A.B’.C, A.B.C’, A.B.C
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

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Unate Functions
• A switching function is said to be unate if no variable appears in both
complemented and uncomplemented forms in the minimized expression.
• Example: x’.y.z + w’.x’ + w’.z
• A switching function is said to be positive unate if all variables appear in only
uncomplemented form in the minimized expression for the function.
• Example: a.b + b.c + c.a
• A switching function is said to be negative unate if all variables appear in only
uncomplemented form in the minimized expression for the function.
• Example: a’.b’ + b’.c’
• If a function is not unate, it is said to be non-unate.
• For the full adder, Cy is positive unate, but S is non-unate.

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Canonical Form of Representing Functions

• A canonical form is a unique representation of a function.

• We can derive two canonical representations directly from the truth
table:
a) Canonical sum-of-products (also called disjunctive normal form)
b) Canonical product-of-sums (also called conjunctive normal form)

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Canonical Sum-of-Products Form

• From the truth table, identify all the true minterms.

• Corresponding to rows for which the output function is 1.
• Take the sum of all the minterms.
• Example for the full adder:
S = A’.B’.C + A’.B.C’ + A.B’.C’ + A.B.C
Cy = A.B.C’ + A’.B.C + A.B’.C + A.B.C
• We can write down the canonical s-o-p expressions in a compact way by noting
down the decimal equivalents of the input combinations:
S = ∑ (1, 2, 4, 7)
Cy = ∑ (3, 5, 6, 7)
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A B C S Cy
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 S = ∑ (1, 2, 4, 7)
0 1 0 1 0 Cy = ∑ (3, 5, 6, 7)
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

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 A B C S Cy

0 0 0 0 0
Canonical Product-of-Sums Form 0 0 1 1 0

0 1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0 1

• From the truth table, identify all the false maxterms. 1 0 0 1 0

• Corresponding to rows for which the output function is 0. 1 0 1 0 1

• For each false maxterm, form a sum term where a variable will appear in 1 1 0 0 1

uncomplemented (complemented) form if it has value 0 (1) in the row. 1 1 1 1 1

• Example for the full adder:

S = (A + B + C) . (A + B’ + C’) . (A’ + B + C’) . (A’ + B’ + C)
Cy = (A + B + C) . (A + B + C’) . (A + B’ + C) . (A’ + B + C)
• We can write down the canonical p-o-s expressions in a compact way by noting
down the decimal equivalents of the input combinations:
S = ∏ (0, 3, 5, 6)
Cy = ∏ (0, 1, 2, 4) Switching Circuits and Logic Design (CS20202) 31
A B C S Cy
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 S = ∏ (0, 3, 5, 6)
0 1 0 1 0 Cy = ∏ (0, 1, 2, 4)
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

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Obtaining Canonical Representation of
Functions
Algebraic Procedure to Obtain Canonical s-o-p
a) Examine each term of a given sum-of-products expression; if it is not a
minterm, go to the next step.
b) For all missing variable xi, multiply the term by (xi’ + xi).
c) Multiply out all products and eliminate redundant product terms.

Example: f (a, b, c) = a.b’ + b + a.b.c

= a.b’ (c + c’) + b (a + a’)(c + c’) + a.b.c
= a.b’.c + a.b’.c’ + a.b.c + a.b.c’ + a’.b.c + a’.b.c’ + a.b.c
= a.b’.c + a.b’.c’ + a.b.c + a.b.c’ + a’.b.c + a’.b.c’

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Algebraic Procedure to Obtain Canonical p-o-s
a) Examine each term of a given product-of-sums expression; if it is not a maxterm, go
to the next step.
b) For all missing variable xi, add the term xi’.xi
c) Obtain the sum terms, and eliminate redundant terms.

Example: f (a, b, c) = a’ (b’ + c)

= (a’ + b.b’ + c.c’) (b’ + c + a.a’)
= (a’ + b + c)(a’ + b + c’)(a’ + b’ + c)(a’ + b’ + c’)(a + b’ + c)(a’ + b’ + c)
= (a’ + b + c)(a’ + b + c’)(a’ + b’ + c)(a’ + b’ + c’)(a + b’ + c)

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Transforming One Form to Another
• Double complement the given function and apply De Morgan’s theorem.
• Rule to be followed:
• Complement of a sum of true minterms is the same as the sum of the false minterms.
• Example:
f (a, b, c) = a’.b’.c’ + a’.b’.c + a’.b.c’ + a.b.c’ + a.b.c
f = (f’)’ = [(a’.b’.c’ + a’.b’.c + a’.b.c’ + a.b.c’ + a.b.c)’]’
= [a’.b.c + a.b.c’ + a.b’.c]’ (Consider remaining minterms)
= (a + b’ + c’)(a’ + b’ + c)(a’ + b + c)

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Canonical s-o-p from the Truth Table

• Consider rows of the truth table for which the output is 1.

• For each such row, form a minterm.
• If the input variable is 0, the corresponding variable will appear in complemented form in
the minterm.
• If the input variable is 1, the corresponding variable will appear in uncomplemented form in
the minterm.
• Take the sum of all such minterms.
• We get the canonical sum-of-products expression.

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Example
A B C S Cy
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 S = A’.B’.C + A’.B.C’ + A.B’.C’ + A.B.C

0 1 0 1 0 Cy = A’.B.C + A.B’.C + A.B.C’ + A.B.C

0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

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Converting to Gate Level Realization

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Canonical p-o-s from the Truth Table

• Consider rows of the truth table for which the output is 0.

• For each such row, form a maxterm.
• If the input variable is 0, the corresponding variable will appear in uncomplemented
form in the maxterm.
• If the input variable is 1, the corresponding variable will appear in complemented
form in the maxterm.
• Take the product of all such maxterms.
• We get the canonical product-of-sums expression.

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Example
A B C S Cy
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 S = (A + B + C)(A + B’ + C’)(A’ + B + C’)(A’ + B’ + C’)

0 1 0 1 0 Cy = (A + B + C)(A + B + C’)(A + B’ + C)(A’ + B + C)

0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

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Converting to Gate Level Realization

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Functional Completeness and Some
Properties of AND-OR Networks

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Functionally Complete or Universal Gates

• In switching algebra, the basic operations are NOT, AND and OR.
• Any switching expression can be realized using these three operators.
• We say that the set {NOT, AND, OR} is functionally complete or Universal.
• Example: Consider the switching function f = A’.B + B.C’.D
• There are only NOT, AND and OR operations.
• We can implement the circuit using NOT, AND and OR gates only.
• Other set of gates can also be shown to be functionally complete.
• Some examples will follow.

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{NAND} is Functionally Complete
• It can be shown that NAND is a universal gate, i.e. it is functionally complete.
• How to prove that?
• We can show that we can realize NOT, AND and OR functions using NAND only.
• The NAND function is:
• NAND (A, B) = (A . B)’
• How to realize basic gates?
• NOT :: A’ = (A . A)’
• AND :: A.B = ((A.B)’)’ = ((A.B)’ . (A.B)’)’
• OR :: A + B = (A’ . B’)’ = ( (A . A)’ . (B . B)’ )’

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{NOR} is Functionally Complete
• It can be shown that NOR is a universal gate, i.e. it is functionally complete.
• How to prove that?
• We can show that we can realize NOT, AND and OR functions using NOR only.
• The NOR function is:
• NOR (A, B) = (A + B)’
• How to realize basic gates?
• NOT :: A’ = (A + A)’
• AND :: A.B = (A’ + B’)’ = ((A + A)’ + (B + B)’)’
• OR :: A + B = ((A + B)’)’ = ( (A + B)’ + (A + B)’ )’

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{AND, NOT} is Functionally Complete
• We have already shown that NAND is functionally complete.
• NAND can be realized as an AND followed by NOT.
• Hence {AND, NOT} is also functionally complete.

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{OR, NOT} is Functionally Complete
• We have already shown that NOR is functionally complete.
• NOR can be realized as an OR followed by NOT.
• Hence {OR, NOT} is also functionally complete.

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{AND, EXOR, 1} is Functionally Complete
• AND and EXOR gates are also functionally complete, but we also need the
constant value 1.
• Recall that EXOR (A, B) = A’.B + A.B’
• How to realize basic bates?
• NOT :: A’ = EXOR (A, 1) = A’.1 + A.0 = A’ + 0 = A’
• And we already know that {NOT, AND} is a functionally complete set.

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{OR, EXOR, 1} is Functionally Complete
• OR and EXOR gates are also functionally complete, but we also need the
constant value 1.
• Recall that EXOR (A, B) = A’.B + A.B’
• How to realize basic bates?
• NOT :: A’ = EXOR (A, 1) = A’.1 + A.0 = A’ + 0 = A’
• And we already know that {NOT, OR} is a functionally complete set.

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{2x1 MUX, 0, 1} is Functionally Complete
• A 2-to-1 multiplexer has two inputs A and B, a select input S, and one
output F.
• It realizes the function: F = MUX21 (A, B, S) = A.S’ + B.S
• If S = 0, we have F = A; and if S = 1, we have F = B.
• How to realize other gates?
• NOT :: A’ = MUX21 (1, 0, A) = 1.A’ + 0.A = A’ + 0 = A’
• AND :: A.B = MUX21 (A, 0, B’) = A.B + 0.B’ = A.B
• Since NOT and AND can be realized, it is functionally complete.

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Two-level AND-OR is Equivalent to NAND-NAND

• Any two-level AND-OR realization can be converted to an equivalent

NAND-NAND realization by replacing all the AND and OR gates by NAND
gates.
• Why is this possible?
• Because of De Morgan’s Law :: A.B + C.D = ( (A.B)’ . (C.D)’ )’

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Two-level OR-AND is Equivalent to NOR-NOR

• Any two-level OR-AND realization can be converted to an equivalent

NOR-NOR realization by replacing all the AND and OR gates by NOR gates.
• Why is this possible?
• Because of De Morgan’s Law :: (A + B) . (C + D) = ( (A + B)’ + (C + D)’ )’

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Realize AND-OR-NOT Circuits using NAND
• We have seen earlier how two-level AND-OR circuits can be transformed
to circuits using NAND gates only.
• By repeated use of De Morgan’s law and the basic laws of switching
algebra, we can transform any multilevel AND-OR-NOT circuit using
NAND gates only.
• Similar approach can be used for realizing circuits using NOR gates.
• Some examples.

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