Mètodes d’integració

Àlex Arenas, Sergio Gómez

Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona

Anàlisi Matemàtica 1
Integral Tables

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Integral Tables
Using a Table of Integrals
• Gradshteyn & Ryzhik: Table of integrals, series and products
• Schaum: Fórmulas y tablas de matemática aplicada
• CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae
• Burington: Handbook of Mathematical Tables and Formulas

Example
We use the table to calculate

Solution
Closest to what we need is this formula:

We can write our integral to fit the formula by setting

u = 2x, du = 2 dx.
Doing this, we have

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Integration by Substitution

Integration by substitution or change of variable

In other words:
න 𝑓 𝑢 𝑥 𝑢′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢

where the second integral, after being calculated for variable 𝑢, must be
expressed in terms of 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥)

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 Integration by Substitution

Integration by substitution or change of variable

It is a direct consequence of the chain rule of the derivative: if 𝐹’(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Integration by Substitution

Example
1
Calculate  (3 + 5x ) 2
dx

Solution
Set u = 3 + 5x, du = 5 dx. Then

1 1  1  1 −2
dx =  du  = u du
(3 + 5x ) u2  5  5
2

and
1 1 −2 1 −1 1
 (3 + 5x ) 2
dx =
5
u du = −
5
u + C = −
5 (3 + 5x )
+C

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Integration by Substitution

Integration by substitution or change of variable

This formula is called the change-of-variables formula. The formula can be

used to evaluate  f ( u ( x ) ) u  ( x ) dx provided that u´ is continuous on [a, b]
b

a
and f is continuous on the set of values taken on by u on [a, b]. Since u is
continuous, this set is an interval that contains a and b.

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 Integration by Substitution

Example
Calculate 1 ex
0 e x + 2 dx

Solution
Set u = ex + 2, du = exdx. At x = 0, u = 3; at x = 1, u = e + 2.
Thus

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Integration by Parts

Integration by parts

It is a direct consequence of the derivative of the product:

′
𝑢 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 = 𝑢′ 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 + 𝑢 𝑥 𝑣 ′ 𝑥

Integrating both sides:

′
න 𝑢 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 = න 𝑢′ 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑢 𝑥 𝑣 ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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 Integration by Parts

Integration by parts

Usually, we write

u = u(x), dv = v´(x) dx
du = u´(x) dx, v = v(x).

Then the formula for integration by parts reads

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 Integration by Parts
Example
 e dx
2 −x
Calculate x

Solution
Setting 𝑢 = 𝑥2 and 𝑣’ = 𝑒 −𝑥 , we have 𝑢’ = 2𝑥 and 𝑣 = −𝑒 −𝑥
This gives
න 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 − න −2𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 + න 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥

We now calculate the integral on the right, again by parts. This time we set
𝑢 = 2𝑥 and 𝑣’ = 𝑒 −𝑥 , we have 𝑢’ = 2 and 𝑣 = −𝑒 −𝑥
and thus
න 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + න 2𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝑒 −𝑥

Combining this with our earlier calculations, we have

න 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝑒 −𝑥 = − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝐶

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 Integration by Parts
Example
 e dx
2 −x
Calculate x

Solution
Setting u = x2 and dv = e−x dx, we have du = 2x dx and v = −e−x .
This gives

x e dx =  u dv = uv −  v du = − x 2 e− x −  −2 xe − x dx = − x 2e − x +  2 xe − x dx
2 −x

We now calculate the integral on the right, again by parts. This time we set
u = 2x and dv = e−x dx which gives du = 2 dx and v = −e−x
and thus

 2 xe dx =  u dv = uv −  v du = −2 xe− x −  −2e − x dx = −2 xe − x +  2e − x dx = −2 xe − x − 2e − x + C
−x

Combining this with our earlier calculations, we have

x e
2 −x
dx = − x 2 e− x − 2 xe− x − 2e− x + C = − ( x 2 + 2 x + 2 ) e − x + C

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Integration by Parts

Integration by parts for definite integrals

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 Integration by Parts
Through integration by parts, we construct an antiderivative for the logarithm, for the
arc sine, and for the arc tangent.

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 Integration by Parts

To find the integral of the arc sine, we set

u = arcsin x, dv = dx
1
du = dx, v=x
1− x 2

This gives

x
 arcsin x dx = x arcsin x −  1 − x2
dx = x arcsin x + 1 − x 2 + C

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Powers and Products of Trigonometric Functions
Integrals of trigonometric powers and products can usually be reduced to elementary
integrals by the imaginative use of the basic trigonometric identities and, here and there,
some integration by parts. These are the identities that we’ll rely on:
Sign relations
sin(−𝛼) = − sin 𝛼 cos −𝛼 = cos 𝛼 tan −𝛼 = − tan 𝛼
Unit circle relations
sin2 𝛼 + cos2 𝛼 = 1 tan2 𝛼 + 1 = sec 2 𝛼 cot 2 𝛼 + 1 = csc 2 𝛼
Addition formulas
sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽
sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 tan 𝛼 ± tan 𝛽
tan(𝛼 ± 𝛽) =
cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 1 ∓ tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽
cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
Double-angle formulas Half-angle formulas
sin 2𝛼 = 2 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 2 sin2 𝛼 = 1 − cos 2𝛼
cos 2𝛼 = cos2 𝛼 − sin2 𝛼 2 cos 2 𝛼 = 1 + cos 2𝛼
2 tan 𝛼 1 − cos 2𝛼
tan 2𝛼 = tan2 𝛼 =
1 − tan2 𝛼 1 + cos 2𝛼
Product-to-sum formulas
2 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)
2 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) + cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)
2 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)
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Powers and Products of Trigonometric Functions
Sines and Cosines

Example
Calculate

2 5
sin x cos x dx

Solution
The relation cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x enables us to express cos4 x in terms of
sin x. The integrand then becomes (a polynomial in sin x) cos x, an expression that
we can integrate by the chain rule.

 = 
2 5 2 4
sin x cos x dx sin x cos x cos x dx

=  sin 2 x (1 − sin 2 x ) cos x dx

2

=  ( sin 2 x − 2sin 4 x + sin 6 x ) cos x dx

1 2 1
= sin 3 x − sin 5 x + sin 7 x + C
3 5 7

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Powers and Products of Trigonometric Functions

Example
Calculate
 x dx  x dx
2 2
sin and cos

Solution
1 1 1 1
Since sin 2 x = − cos 2 x and cos 2 x = + cos 2 x
2 2 2 2

 x dx = 
sin 2
( 1
2
1
) 1 1
− cos 2 x dx = x − sin 2 x + C
2 2 4

and

 x dx = 
cos 2
( 1
2
1
) 1 1
+ cos 2 x dx = x + sin 2 x + C
2 2 4

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 Integration by Substitution (2)

Another change of variables

Note that instead of 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥) we have now 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑢)

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 Integrals involving 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2

Integrals that feature 𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 or 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 can often be calculated by a

trigonometric substitution. Taking a > 0, we proceed as follows:

For 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 we use
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝑢, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑢 du, 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑎 1 − sin2 𝑢 = 𝑎 cos 𝑢

For 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 we use
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝑢, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢, 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑎 1 + tan2 𝑢 = = 𝑎 sec 𝑢
cos2 𝑢 cos 𝑢

For 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 we use
𝑎 sin 𝑢
𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝑢, 𝑑𝑥 = cos2 𝑢
𝑑𝑢, 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎 sec 2 𝑢 − 1 = 𝑎 tan 𝑢

In making such substitutions, we must make clear exactly what values of u we are
using.
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 Integrals involving 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2

Example
dx
To calculate  dx
(a 2
−x )
2 3/ 2

we note that the integral can be written

3
 1 
  a 2 − x2  dx
This integral features a 2 − x 2 . For each x between −a and a, we set
x = a sin u, dx = a cosu du,
taking u between −½π and ½π. For such u, cos u > 0 and a 2 − x 2 = a cos u

Therefore

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Integrals involving 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2

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 Integrals involving 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2

Example
dx
We calculate  x2 − 1

The domain of the integrand consists of two separated sets: all x > 1 and all x < −1.
Both for x > 1 and x < −1, we set
x = sec u, dx = sec u tanu du.

For x > 1 we take u between 0 and ½π; for x < −1 we take u between π and 3∕2π. For
such u, tan u > 0 and
x 2 − 1 = tan u

Therefore, dx sec u tan u

 x2 − 1
=
tan u
du =  sec u du

= ln sec u + tan u + C

= ln x + x 2 − 1 + C

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Integrals involving 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2

Trigonometric substitutions can be effective in cases where the quadratic is

not under a radical sign. In particular, the reduction formula

(a very useful little formula) can be obtained by setting x = a tan u, taking u

between −½π and ½ π.

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 Rational Functions

A rational function R(x) = P(x)/Q(x) is said to be proper if the degree of the

numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. If the degree of the
numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator, then the
rational function is called improper. We will focus our attention on proper
rational functions because any improper rational function can be written as
a sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function:

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
=𝑝 𝑥 +
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)

This is obtained by division of polynomials

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑟(𝑥) p(𝑥)

which means

𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑥 𝑄 𝑥 + 𝑟(𝑥)

and where deg 𝑟 𝑥 < deg 𝑄(𝑥) Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables
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 Rational Functions

Example

𝑥 3 + 1 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 1 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4) + 4𝑥 + 1 4𝑥 + 1
= = = 𝑥 +
𝑥2 − 4 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥2 − 4 𝑥2 − 4

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 Rational Functions

Example

6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 4 2
4𝑥 − 3
= 3𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 +
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1

since

6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 4 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
−(6𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 ) 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1
2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4
−(2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 )
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4
−(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1)
4𝑥 − 3

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 Rational Functions

Every polynomial

can be decomposed as a product of polynomials of degree 1 and/or 2

with

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 Rational Functions

Every proper rational function can be written as the sum of partial

fractions, fractions of the form

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 Rational Functions

The denominator splits into distinct linear factors

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Rational Functions

The denominator has a repeated linear factor

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Rational Functions

The denominator has an irreducible quadratic factor

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

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 Rational Functions

The denominator has a repeated irreducible quadratic factor

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 Rational Functions

Example
2𝑥 2𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 1

To find 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 2)
+ =
𝑥−2 𝑥+1 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)
thus
𝐴 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵 𝑥 − 2 = 2𝑥

Method 1: substitute values for x

If 𝑥 = 2 then 3𝐴 = 4 ⇒ 𝐴 = 4/3
If 𝑥 = −1 then −3𝐵 = −2 ⇒ 𝐵 = 2/3

Method 2: two polynomials are equal iff all the coefficients are equal
𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥 + 𝐴 − 2𝐵 = 2𝑥

𝐴+𝐵 =2 𝐴 = 4/3
൜ ⇒ ቊ
𝐴 − 2𝐵 = 0 𝐵 = 2/3
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 Rational Functions

Example

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 Rational Functions

Solution of integrals of rational functions

𝑃(𝑥)
න 𝑑𝑥
𝑄(𝑥)
1. Divide the polynomials if deg 𝑃 𝑥 ≥ deg 𝑄(𝑥)

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
න 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑝 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑑𝑥
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)

2. Decompose the integral of the proper rational function into sum of integrals of
the form

𝐴
න 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−𝛼

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
න 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 𝑘

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 Rational Functions

Solution of integrals of rational functions

3. Solve the remaining integrals using

• Case 1

𝐴
න 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 ln(𝑥 − 𝛼) + 𝐶
𝑥−𝛼

• Case 2

𝐴 −𝑘 𝑑𝑥
𝐴
න 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 න 𝑥 − 𝛼
= 𝑘−1
+ 𝐶, 𝑘>1
𝑥−𝛼 (1 − 𝑘) 𝑥 − 𝛼

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 Rational Functions

Solution of integrals of rational functions

3. Solve the remaining integrals using

• Case 3

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑥 1
න 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 න 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐵 න 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 𝑥 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 𝑥 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾
𝐴 2𝑥 + 𝛽 − 𝛽 1
= න 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐵 න 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 𝛽 2 4𝛾 − 𝛽 2
𝑥+2 + 4
𝐴 2𝑥 + 𝛽 𝛽𝐴 1
= න 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐵 − න 2 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 2 𝛽 4𝛾 − 𝛽 2
𝑥+2 + 4
𝐴 2𝐵 − 𝛽𝐴 2𝑥 + 𝛽
= ln 𝑥 2 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 + arctan +𝐶
2 4𝛾 − 𝛽 2 4𝛾 − 𝛽2

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 Rational Functions

Solution of integrals of rational functions

3. Solve the remaining integrals using

• Case 4

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐴 2𝑥 + 𝛽 𝛽𝐴 1
න 2 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 2 න 𝑥 2 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐵 − 2 න 𝑥 2 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾
𝐴 𝛽𝐴 1
= 𝑘−1 + 𝐵 − 2 න 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
2(1 − 𝑘) 𝑥 2 + 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛾 𝛽
4𝛾 − 2
𝛽2
𝑥+2 +
4
𝑑𝑡 1 𝑚2 + 𝑡 2 − 𝑡 2 1 1 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑘 = න 2 = 2න 2 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝐼𝑘−1 − 2 න 2
𝑡 + 𝑚2 𝑘 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑚2 𝑘 𝑚 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑚2 𝑘

𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 −1 𝑡
By parts: න 2 = − 𝐼𝑘−1
𝑡 + 𝑚2 𝑘 2(𝑘 − 1) 𝑡 2 + 𝑚2 𝑘−1

𝑡 2𝑘 − 3 𝛽 2 𝛽2
𝐼𝑘 = + 𝐼 , 𝑡 = 𝑥 + ,𝑚 = 𝛾 −
2𝑚2 (𝑘 − 1) 𝑡 2 + 𝑚2 𝑘−1 2𝑚2 (𝑘 − 1) 𝑘−1 2 4
Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables
Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Rational Functions

Example 1

6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 4
න 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
Solution
First, divide to obtain a proper fraction, as already done a few slides before

6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 4 2+𝑥+1+
4𝑥 − 3
= 3𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
Thus

6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 4 3
𝑥 2 4𝑥 − 3
න 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + + 𝑥 + න 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 2 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
To calculate the remaining integral, first decompose it in sum of partial fractions.
Since 𝑥 = −1 is a zero of 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1, then 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = (𝑥 + 1)(2x − 1) and

4𝑥 − 3 4𝑥 − 3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 2𝑥 − 1 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
= = + =
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(2x − 1) 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(2x − 1)
Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables
Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Rational Functions

Example 1

6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 4
න 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
Solution
4𝑥 − 3 𝐴 2𝑥 − 1 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)
=
(𝑥 + 1)(2x − 1) (𝑥 + 1)(2x − 1)

We have to find 𝐴 and 𝐵 such that 4𝑥 − 3 = 𝐴 2𝑥 − 1 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)

7
Setting 𝑥 = −1 ⇒ −7 = −3𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 3
1 3 2
Setting 𝑥 = 2 ⇒ −1 = 2 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = − 3
Therefore
4𝑥 − 3 7 1 2 1 7 1
න 2 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑑𝑥 − න 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 1 − ln 2𝑥 − 1
2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 3 𝑥+1 3 2𝑥 − 1 3 3
Finally
6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 4 3+
𝑥 2
7 1
න 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 + 1 − ln 2𝑥 − 1 + 𝐶
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 2 3 3
Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables
Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Rational Functions

Example 2

50
න 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 − 1 2

Solution
50 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
= + +
𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 − 1 2 𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 − 1 𝑥−1 2
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝐶 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑥 − 1 + 𝐷(𝑥 2 + 4)
=
𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 − 1 2
We have to find the coefficients such that
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝐶 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑥 − 1 + 𝐷 𝑥 2 + 4 = 50
Setting 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 5𝐷 = 50 ⇒ 𝐷 = 10
Setting 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝐵 − 4𝐶 + 40 = 50 ⇒ 𝐵 = 10 + 4𝐶
The coefficient of 𝑥 3 is 𝐴 + 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴 = −𝐶
The numerator becomes 5 𝐶 + 4 𝑥 2 − 𝐶 + 4 𝑥 + 10 = 50 ⇒ 𝐶 = −4
Thus, 𝐴 = 4, 𝐵 = −6, 𝐶 = −4, 𝐷 = 10
50 4𝑥 − 6 4 10
= − +
𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 − 1 2 𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 − 1 𝑥−1 2
Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables
Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Rational Functions

Example 2

50
න 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 − 1 2

Solution
50 4𝑥 − 6 1 1
න 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = න 2 𝑑𝑥 − 4 න 𝑑𝑥 + 10 න 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +4 𝑥−1 𝑥 +4 𝑥−1 𝑥−1
4𝑥 1 10
=න 2 𝑑𝑥 − 6 න 2 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ln 𝑥 − 1 −
𝑥 +4 𝑥 +4 𝑥−1
3 1 10
= 2 ln 𝑥 2 + 4 − න 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ln 𝑥 − 1 −
2 𝑥 2 𝑥−1
+ 1
2
𝑥 10
= 2 ln 𝑥 2 + 4 − 3 arctan − 4 ln 𝑥 − 1 − +𝐶
2 𝑥−1
𝑥2 + 4 𝑥 10
= 2 ln − 3 arctan − +𝐶
𝑥−1 2 2 𝑥−1

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions

There are integrands which are not rational functions but can be transformed
into rational functions by a suitable substitution. Such substitutions are known
as rationalizing substitutions.

Example
dx
Find 1+ x
Solution
To rationalize the integrand, we set
u2 = x, 2u du = dx,
taking u ≥ 0. Then u = x and

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions
Example
Find  1 − e x dx

Solution
To rationalize the integrand, we set u = 1 − e x

Then 0 ≤ u < 1. To express dx in terms of u and du, we solve the equation for x:

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions
Integració de binomis diferencials

න 𝑥 𝑚 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛 𝑝 𝑑𝑥

on 𝑚, 𝑛 i 𝑝 son nombres racionals i els coeficients 𝑎 i 𝑏 son nombres reals, 𝑎 𝑏 ≠ 0.

Aquestes integrals són un cas particular d’integrals irracionals.

Pel Teorema de Chevyshev, aquestes integrals es poden expressar en termes de

funcions elementals només en els següents casos:

a) Si 𝑝 enter: fent la substitució 𝑥 = 𝑡 𝑠 , amb 𝑠 el mínim comú múltiple dels

denominadors de 𝑚 i 𝑛
𝑚+1
b) Si 𝑛 enter: fent la substitució 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑡 𝑠 , amb 𝑠 el denominador de 𝑝
𝑚+1 𝑎
c) Si + 𝑝 enter: fent la substitució + 𝑏 = 𝑡 𝑠 , amb s el denominador de 𝑝
𝑛 𝑥𝑛

Amb els canvis de variable esmentats la integral es converteix en racional.

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions
Exemple
2
න 3 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solució
1 1
És binomi diferencial amb 𝑚 = , 𝑛 = , 𝑝 = 2. Com 𝑝 enter fem 𝑥 = 𝑡 6 , 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑡 5 𝑑𝑡
3 2
2 2 2
න 3 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑡 6/3 1 + 𝑡 6/2 6𝑡 5 𝑑𝑡 = 6 න 𝑡 7 1 + 𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡

𝑡 8 𝑡 11 𝑡 14
= 6 න 𝑡 7 (1 + 2𝑡 3 + 𝑡 6 )𝑑𝑡 = 6 + 12 +6
8 11 14
3 8/6 12 11/6 3 14/6
= 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥
4 11 7
3 12 3
= 𝑥 4/3 + 𝑥+ 𝑥
4 11 7
3 3
= 𝑥 𝑥 77 + 112 𝑥 + 44𝑥 + 𝐶
308

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions
Exemple
3
න 1 − 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Solució
3 1/3
න 1 − 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = න 1 − 𝑥 1/2 𝑑𝑥

1 1 𝑚+1
És binomi diferencial amb 𝑚 = 0, 𝑛 = 2 , 𝑝 = 3. Com = 2 enter fem
𝑛
1
1 − 𝑥 = 𝑡 3, − 2 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑥 = −6𝑡 2 1 − 𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
𝑥
3 3
න 1 − 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −6 න 𝑡 3 𝑡 2 1 − 𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 = −6 න 𝑡 3 − 𝑡 6 𝑑𝑡

𝑡4 𝑡7 6 4 3
= −6 + 6 = 𝑡 4𝑡 − 7
4 7 28
3 4
=− 1− 𝑥 3 4 𝑥+3 +𝐶
14

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions
Exemple
1
න 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 11 2+ 3𝑥 4
Solució
1 −1/2
න 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑥 −11 2 + 3𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 11 2 + 3𝑥 4
1 𝑚+1
És binomi diferencial amb 𝑚 = −11, 𝑛 = 4, 𝑝 = − 2. Com +𝑝 = −3 enter fem
𝑛
1
2𝑥 −4 + 3 = 𝑡 2 , −8𝑥 −5 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑡𝑑𝑡, 𝑑𝑥 = − 4 𝑥 5 𝑡𝑑𝑡
1 1 1
−1/2 −2 5
න 𝑥 −11 2 + 3𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 = − න 𝑥 −11 𝑡 2 𝑥 4 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − න 𝑥 −8 𝑑𝑡
4 4
2
1 𝑡2 − 3 1 1 𝑡 5
=− න 𝑑𝑡 = − න 𝑡 4 − 6𝑡 2 + 9 𝑑𝑡 = − − 2𝑡 3 + 9𝑡
4 2 16 16 5
2
𝑡 4 2
1 2 + 3𝑥 4 2 + 3𝑥 4 2 + 3𝑥 4
=− 𝑡 − 10𝑡 + 45 = − − 10 + 45
80 80 𝑥2 𝑥8 𝑥4
1 2 + 3𝑥 4 8 − 2𝑥 4 + 1 + 𝐶
=− 6𝑥
20 𝑥 10

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions
Rational functions of terms sin(𝑥), cos(𝑥) and tan(𝑥)

General solution

They are rationalized using

𝑥
𝑡 = tan
2
since
2𝑑𝑡
𝑥 = 2 arctan 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2 sin 2 cos 2 2 tan 2 2𝑡
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥= 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡2
2 2
sin 2 + cos 2 1 + tan 2 2

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
cos 2 2 − sin2 2 1 − tan2 2 1 − 𝑡 2
cos 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥= 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡2
2 2
cos 2 + sin 2 1 + tan 2 2

2𝑡
tan 𝑥 =
1 − 𝑡2 Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables
Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions
Rational functions of terms sin(𝑥), cos(𝑥) and tan(𝑥)

Example
𝑥
Using the change of variable 𝑡 = tan 2 we can solve

1 1 2𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑥
න 𝑑𝑥 = න = න = ln 𝑡 = ln tan + 𝐶
sin 𝑥 2𝑡 1 + 𝑡 2 𝑡 2
1+𝑡 2

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions
Rational functions of terms tan(𝑥), sin2 (𝑥) and cos 2 (𝑥)

General solution

They are rationalized using

𝑡 = tan 𝑥
since
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 = arctan 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2

1 1
cos 2 𝑥 = =
1 + tan2 𝑥 1 + 𝑡 2
2𝑥 2
tan 𝑡
sin2 𝑥 = =
1 + tan2 𝑥 1 + 𝑡 2

tan 𝑥 = 𝑡

Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables

Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Rationalizing Substitutions
Rational functions of terms tan(𝑥), sin2 (𝑥) and cos 2 (𝑥)

Examples

Using the change of variable 𝑡 = tan 𝑥 we can solve

1 1 𝑑𝑡 1 + 𝑡2 𝑡 −3 𝑡 −1
න 4 𝑑𝑥 = න 2 = න 4 𝑑𝑡 = +
sin 𝑥 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2 𝑡 −3 −1
1 + 𝑡2
1 1 1 3
=− + + 𝐶 = − ctg 𝑥 − ctg 𝑥 + 𝐶
tan 𝑥 3 tan3 𝑥 3

tan2 𝑥 − 1 𝑡2 − 1 𝑑𝑡 2 − 1) 1 + 𝑡 2 3 𝑑𝑡
න 𝑑𝑥 = න 4 1 + 𝑡2 = න(𝑡
cos 8 𝑥 1
1 + 𝑡2
1 2 2
= න(𝑡 + 2𝑡 − 2𝑡 − 1)𝑑𝑡 = tan 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 − tan3 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
8 6 2 9 7
9 7 3
Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables
Copyright 2007 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Nonelementary integrals
Integrals that cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions (i.e., a finite
number of quotients of constant, algebraic, exponential, trigonometric or logarithmic
functions)
2
න 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥

න ln(ln 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

1
න 𝑑𝑥
ln 𝑥
𝑒 −𝑥
න 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

න sin(𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥

sin 𝑥
න 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

න 𝑥 𝑐−1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑐∉ℤ
Salas, Hille, Etgen Calculus: One and Several Variables
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