CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT

1

BASIC CONCEPTS OF AC
2

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO RESISTOR

3

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO INDUCTOR

4

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO CAPACITOR

5

AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

6
INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT:

We have so far considered direct current (dc) sources and circuits with dc sources. These
currents do not change direction with time. But voltages and currents that vary with time are
very common. The electric mains supply in our homes and offices is a voltage that varies like
a sine function with time. Such a voltage is called alternating voltage (ac voltage) and the
current driven by it in a circuit is called the alternating current (ac current). Today, most of
the electrical devices we use require ac voltage. This is mainly because most of the electrical
energy sold by power companies is transmitted and distributed as alternating current. The
main reason for preferring use of ac voltage over dc voltage is that ac voltages can be easily
and efficiently converted from one voltage to the other by means of transformers. Further,
electrical energy can also be transmitted economically over long distances. AC circuits
exhibit characteristics which are exploited in many devices of daily use. For example,
whenever we tune our radio to a favourite station, we are taking advantage of a special
property of ac circuits let’s see one by one.

BASIC CONCEPT OF AC:

 AC WAVEFORM:
The most common type of AC waveform is a sine wave, which smoothly oscillates
above and below a central zero voltage line. The shape of the waveform is due to the
sinusoidal nature of AC voltage and current.

 FREQUENCY:
The frequency of AC is measured in Hertz (Hz) and refers to the number of cycles per
second.

 AMPLITUDE:
The amplitude is the peak value of the voltage or current. This is the maximum value
reached by the waveform.

1
WHY AC IS USED:
 EFFICIENCY:
AC can be transmitted over long distances more efficiently than DC. This is because
its voltage can be easily increased or decreased using transformers, minimizing
energy loss.

 TRANSFORMERS:
These devices change AC voltage levels, making it easier to transmit power over long
distances and then reduce it for safe use in homes and businesses.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AC:
 PEAK VOLTAGE:
The highest voltage value in the AC cycle.

 RMS VOLTAGE:
The root mean square (RMS) value is a way of expressing the effective voltage or
current of an AC system

 PHASE:
In AC systems, phase refers to the timing of the waveforms.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS:
 HOUSEHOLD AC:
In most homes, AC power is delivered through standard outlets at 120V or 240V,
depending on the country and application.

 SAFETY:
While AC is efficient, it can be dangerous if not handled properly. Proper insulation,
grounding, and circuit protection are essential for safety.

2
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A RESISTOR:

 A resistor connected to a source ε of ac voltage

 The symbol for an AC source in a circuit diagram is
 We consider a source which produces sinusoidally varying potential difference across
its terminals.
 Let this potential difference, also called ac voltage, be given by

v(t) = Vm sin w t
where,

 vm is the amplitude of the oscillating potential difference and

 w is it’s angular frequency.
 To find the value of current through the resistor, we can use kirchhoff’s loop rule

∑ε(t) = 0
To the circuit

Vm sin w t= iR
or i= (Vm / R) sin w t
Since R is constant we can write as

i=im sin wt
Where the current amplitude Im is given by

Im= Vm/R

3
PHASOR REPRESENTATION:
 The AC voltage can be represented as a rotating vector with a magnitude V0 and an
angle ωt
 The AC current, due to the resistor’s linear nature , will have the same phase angle as
the voltage

PHASE ANGLE :
 For a resistor, the phase angle between the voltage and current is zero degrees. This
means that the voltage and current waveforms reach their maximum and minimum
points simultaneously.

PHASE DAIGRAM:
 In the phase diagram, both the voltage and current phasors would be aligned along the
real axis.

 V0 is the peak voltage

 ω is the angular frequency of the signal
 ϕ is the phase angle.
 Resistor follows Ohm’s Law
V=IR
Where

 Vis the voltage across the resistor

 I is the current through the resistor
 R is the resistance.

4
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR:

 A inductor connected to a source ε of ac voltage

 The symbol for an AC source in a circuit diagram is
 Let the voltage across the source be
v = vm sin w t
 Using the Kirchhoff’s loop rule
∑ε ( ) t = 0 and
 since there is no resistor in the circuit,
v-L( di/dt)=0
where,
 where the second term is the self-induced Faraday emf in the inductor
 L is the self-inductance

 Though voltage and current in ac circuit are represented by phasors – rotating vectors,
they are not vectors themselves.
 They are scalar quantities.
 It so happens that the amplitudes and phases of harmonically varying scalars combine
mathematically in the same way as do the projections of rotating vectors of
corresponding magnitudes and directions.
 The rotating vectors that represent harmonically varying scalar quantities are
introduced only to provide us with a simple way of adding these quantities using a
rule that we already know.

5
 v = Vm sin w t

 v-L di/dt=0
 By combining both the equ

di/dt=v/L= (vm/L)=sin wt
 Thus, the equ implies that for i(t) , the current as a function of time, must be such that
its slope di/dt is a sinusoidally varying quantity, with the same phase as the source
voltage and an amplitude given by vm /L. To obtain the current, we integrate di/dt
with respect to time:

∫(di/dt)dt=(vm/L )sin w t
and get ,
i= (-vm/wL )cos (wt)+constant

 The integration constant has the dimension of current and is time independent
 Since the source has an emf which oscillates symmetrically about zero, the current it
sustains also oscillates symmetrically about zero, so that no constant or time-
independent component of the current exists
 Therefore, the integration constant is zero.

-cos (wt)=sin (wt- π/2)

i = imsin (wt- π/2)

im=vm/xl

 The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance and

 its SI unit is ohm (W).
 The inductive reactance limits the current in a purely inductive circuit in the same
way as the resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit.
 The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and to the frequency
of the current

6
PHASOR REPRESENTATION:
 When an AC voltage V(t)=Vmsin(ωt) is applied to an inductor, the current through the
inductor lags behind the voltage by 90 degrees. This can be represented in phasor
form as
 The voltage phasor: V=Vm∠0∘, which means the voltage is the reference and has no
phase shift.
 The current phasor: I=Im∠−90∘, which indicates that the current lags the voltage by
90 degrees.

PHASE ANGLE :

 In an inductive circuit, the phase angle ϕ between the voltage and the current is 90
degrees. Mathematically, this phase difference can be understood through:
ϕ=arctan(XL/R)
 In a purely inductive circuit, R=0 (ideal case), and the phase angle ϕ=90∘
 Therefore, in a purely inductive circuit, the current lags the voltage by exactly 90
degrees.

PHASE DAIGRAM:
 The voltage phasor V is drawn along the horizontal axis (usually taken as the
reference at 0 degrees).
 The current phasor III is drawn 90 degrees behind the voltage, pointing downward,
indicating the lag in current.

7
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN CAPACITOR:

 A capacitor is connected to the ε of ac voltage.

 The symbol for an AC source in a circuit diagram is
 Let the voltage across the source be

v = vm sin w t

 The instantaneous voltage v across the capacitor is

V=q/c

 Using Kirchhoff ’s loop rule

Vm sin wt=q/c
where,

 vm is the amplitude of the oscillating potential difference and

 w is it’s angular frequency.

 The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of resistance and its SI unit
is ohm (Ω).

8
 The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of the current in a purely capacitive
circuit in the same way as the resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit.
But it is inversely proportional to the frequency and the capacitance

 To find the current we use the relation

i=dq/dt

i=d/dt(vm c sin w t)=wc vm cos (wt)

 Using the realtion

cos(wt)=sin(wt+π/2) we have
i=im sin (wt + π/2)

 Where the amplitude of the oscillating current is

im=w cv m
 We can rewrite as
im=v m/(1/ w c)

 Comparing it to im = vm /R for a purely resistive circuit, we find that (1/wC) plays

the role of resistance. It is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by Xc

Xc = 1/wC

 so that the amplitude of the current is

im=vm/xc

9
PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF A CAPACITOR:
In a pure capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by 90°. This means that the current
reaches its maximum value one-quarter of a cycle before the voltage does.
 Voltage Phasor: The voltage across a capacitor is represented as a phasor (a rotating
vector) on the complex plane.

 Current Phasor: The current phasor leads the voltage by 90° in a capacitive circuit.

 So, if we assume the voltage phasor is aligned with the horizontal axis (real axis), the
current phasor will point 90° upwards on the imaginary axis.

PHASE ANGLE (ϕ) :

 The phase angle φ in a purely capacitive circuit is −90°(or −π/2 radians).
This indicates that the voltage lags the current by 90°.
 Mathematically, the voltage V(t) and current I(t) for a capacitor are
related as
V(t)=V0sin(ωt)

PHASOR DAIGARAM :
 On the phasor diagram:

 The voltage vector (phasor) is along the horizontal (real) axis.

 The current vector (phasor) leads the voltage by 90°, so it is along
the vertical (imaginary) axis.
 The length of the phasors represents the magnitude of the voltage
and current.

10
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT:

 An LCR circuit (also known as an RLC circuit) consists of three components: an Inductor (L), a
Capacitor (C), and a Resistor (R), connected in series or parallel. When an alternating
current (AC) voltage is applied to this circuit, its behavior depends on the interaction of
these three elements. Here's a general explanation:

BASIC COMPONENTS:
 Inductor (L): It opposes changes in current. The opposition offered by an inductor in
an AC circuit is called inductive reactance (XL), and it increases with frequency.

XL = 2πfL
 Capacitor (C): It stores and releases energy in the form of an electric field. The
opposition offered by a capacitor in an AC circuit is called capacitive reactance (X c),
and it decreases with frequency.

Xc =1/2πf C

 Resistor (R): It opposes the flow of current by dissipating energy in the form of heat,
and this opposition remains constant regardless of frequency.

11