GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

UNIT 1: INTERACTIONS OF MATTER

CHAPTER 6: ORBITS
to ORBITALS
 Lesson 6.1
OVERVIEW of QUANTUM THEORY

Learning Objectives:
➢ Define what is light
➢ Identify the properties of light
➢ Describe quantized energy

Guide Question

“What is light to you?”

Light propagates through space

in the form of electromagnetic (EM)
waves, which have both electric and
magnetic properties.
A portion of light, which the eyes
can detect, is called visible light and
occupies a narrow band in the EM
Figure 6.1. An electromagnetic wave has
spectrum. electric and magnetic components.
Best example of the visible light is the rainbow. Visible light
consists of different colors (ROYGBIV); each color with distinct
characteristics.

Figure 6.2. The components of the electromagnetic spectrum and their applications
 Light waves, like any other
types of wave, can be described in
terms of wavelength, amplitude,
and frequency.
As shown in figure 6.3,
amplitude is the distance from the
equilibrium point of a propagating Figure 6.3. The amplitude and wavelength of a wave

wave to the highest (or lowest) point of the waveform. The highest
and lowest points are referred to as the crest and trough,
respectively. Wavelength (λ) is the distanc3e between two crests (or
trough) of successive waves and is usually expressed in meters.
Frequency (f) is the number of waves that pass through a fixed
point per unit of time and is usually expressed in Hertz (Hz).

In 1900, German theoretical Max Planck proposed the

quantum theory, which won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.
According to the theory, light energy is “quantized” in multiples of
hf. Each quantized energy, called quantum, can be calculated using
the equation
E = hf
Where h is the Planck’s constant with a value of 6.626 𝑥 10−34 J.s
and f is the frequency in Hz. Thus, the energy of light of a certain
wavelength can be calculated using the equation
ℎ𝑐
E= 𝜆

STARTER

ACTIVITY 1. Picture Analogy

Direction. Using the illustrations below, differentiate
continuous energy and quantized energy.
B B

A
A
a) Continuous energy b) Quantized energy
 Photon Electromagnetic Wave

Figure 6.4. The dual nature of light

Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) proposed that light, aside from

being electromagnetic wave, also exists as tiny particles, which
were later called photons. These two characteristics of light came
to be known as the dual nature of light, which is consistent with
the quantum theory known today. The photon can be considered
as the quantized form of light. The energy of photon can ne
measured in quantities of hf.
 Lesson 6.2
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL of an ATOM

Learning Objectives:
➢ Identify the different atomic models
➢ Describe the quantum mechanical model of the atom
➢ Distinguish the different atomic orbitals
➢ Illustrate the numbers of electrons using the quantum
numbers

Guide Question

“What does the quantum theory have to do with the atomic model?”

STARTER

ACTIVITY 1. Evolution of the Atomic Model

Direction. Draw the evolution of atomic model from Dalton’s
atomic theory to Rutherford’s nuclear model.
 Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962) – a Danish physicist, used the
quantum theory to improve Rutherford’s model of the atom.

▪ He proposed that when an atom absorbs energy, its electron

jump from one orbit to another with a higher energy. The
electron will now be in an “excited state”.
▪ When the electron falls back to the original orbit (lower
energy) or “ground state”. As it does, energy is released in
the form of light – photons.
▪ Electron Relaxation is the process in which electrons fall back
to its ground state. These excitation and relaxation processes
result in the atomic line spectrum of an atom.

Figure 6.5. Hydrogen atomic line spectrum

The atomic line spectrum is a characteristics property of an

atom of an element. When an atom is heated or vaporized, it will
emit light of a certain color. Sodium, for example, emits a yellow
light, while calcium emits red light. This is how different colors are
produced in a fireworks display. Different metals are ignited in the
air emitting their characteristics brilliant colors.

When does an atom emit light?

 In 1923, French physicist Louis de
Broglie used the dual nature of light and
proposed that particles similar to a photon,
like an electron, moving at about the speed of
light must also have a wavelike property.

Treating an electron as having wavelike

properties means that it can be described in
terms of the properties used to describe a
wave. Therefore, its wavelength can be obtained using the equation
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
where h is the Planck’s constant, m is the mass of the electron, and
v is its velocity.

The Schrodinger Equation and the Wave Function

With quantum mechanics, the view of the atom changed

dramatically since the plum pudding model. Today, atom is
described as having a dense nucleus surrounded by a probabilistic
“cloud” where electrons likely to be found, rather than a fixed orbit.
Since the electron is considered to be travelling at quantum
speed like a wave, then it is impossible to simultaneously
determine its exact location and momentum at a particular time.
This is known as the uncertainty principle proposed by German
physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901 – 1976).
In 1926, Austrian physicist Erwin Schrodinger (1887 – 1961)
came up with an equation for an electron moving like a wave in
three-dimensional space around the nucleus. This wave equation
describes how a wave propagates over time. Its solution resulted
in a wave function, which describe the shape of a wave.
Atomic Orbitals
The wave function from the Schrodinger equation suggests
that a 90% probability of finding an electron in a region around the
nucleus. These regions are called atomic orbitals, which may be s,
p, d, or f.

An s orbital is spherical in shape.

A p orbital is “dumbbell-shaped.” The three equivalent p

orbital are Px, Py, and Pz.

There are five kinds of d orbitals: 𝑑𝑦𝑧 , 𝑑𝑥𝑧 , 𝑑𝑥𝑦 , 𝑑𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑑𝑧 2 .

Except for the 𝑑𝑧 2 , theses orbitals consist of four lobes, in contrast
to the two lobes of the p orbital.
 There are seven f orbitals as shown in the figures below.
These orbitals haves the most diffused shape compared to the
other orbitals.

Quantum Numbers
A set of quantum numbers gives an information about the
atomic orbital where an electron may be found. There are four
classes: principal, azimuthal, magnetic, and spin.

Principal Quantum Number

The principal quantum

number indicates the energy
level or shell where an atomic
orbital can be found. It can
have integral values (n = 1, 2,
3, and so on), which
correspond to the orbits on the
Bohr model.
Azimuthal Quantum Number
The azimuthal quantum number (l) specifies the sublevel (or
subshell) within a particular energy level. It can have the values of
0 to n – 1.
l Orbital
0 s
1 p
2 d
3 f

Magnetic Quantum Number

The magnetic quantum number (𝑚𝑙 ) indicates the specific

orbital within the sublevel where the electron is found. It can have
the value of -l to +l.

Table 6.2.1. Quantum Numbers for Each Orbital in the Lower Energy Levels
Spin Quantum Number
According to Pauli exclusion principle, only a maximum of two
electrons can occupy an orbital, and they must have an opposite
spin to minimize the repulsion between them. This principle is
observed through the spin quantum number, which can only have
values of 𝑚𝑠 = +1⁄2 or -1⁄2 (represented as or , respectively) for
each electron.

n=1 n=1
l=0 l=0
𝑚𝑙 = 0 𝑚𝑙 = 0

𝑚𝑠 = +1⁄2 𝑚𝑠 = - 1⁄2

Sample Problem
Give the set of quantum numbers for each of the six electrons
that occupy the 4p orbitals. Illustrate these electrons in boxes
similar to those in table 6.2.1

Solution:
For all six electrons, n = 4 and l = 1. The possible values of 𝑚𝑙
are -1, 0, and +1, which are represented as the three boxes below
(Px, Py, Pz). The two electrons in each orbital have 𝑚𝑠 = +1⁄2, -1⁄2.

Px Py Pz

n=4 n=4 n=4

l=1 l=1 l=1
𝑚𝑙 = -1 𝑚𝑙 = 0 𝑚 𝑙 = +1
𝑚𝑠 = +1⁄2, -1⁄2 𝑚𝑠 = +1⁄2, -1⁄2 𝑚𝑠 = +1⁄2, -1⁄2
Practice Exercise 6.2.1
Give the set of quantum numbers for each of the 10 electrons
that occupy the 3d orbitals and 14 electrons in 4f orbitals.
Illustrate these electrons in boxes.

Performance Task 1

Name: _____________________Yr&Sec.:______________Date:_________

An ID Number for an Electron

Direction. Write the four quantum numbers corresponding to the
electrons described below.

Quantum Numbers
Electrons
n l 𝑚𝑙 𝑚𝑠
Electron of hydrogen
11th electron of sodium
15th electron of phosphorous
28th electron of nickel
Last electron of neptunium
2nd electron in 5𝑠 2
4th electron in 3𝑝4
5th electron in 4𝑝6
8th electron in 4𝑑10
11th electron in 5𝑓 14