MATH1530 Basic Mathematics for Business and Social Sciences Autumn 2023

Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions

Lecturer: Lily PAN

4.1 Polynomials

A polynomial with variable x can be written as in the form

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a0

The numbers a0 , a1 , . . . , an are called the coefficients of f (x). In this chapter, we assume
that all coefficients are real numbers. Such polynomials are called real polynomials. If
an 6= 0, then this polynomial f has degree n, denoted by deg f = n. an is called the leading
coefficient.

A real number α is called a real root of f (x) if f (α) = 0. It can be showed that a non-zero
polynomial of degree n has at most n real roots.

Below are the graphs of some polynomials of different degrees.

deg f = 0 (constant) deg f = 1 (linear)

4-1
Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions 4-2

deg f = 2 (quadratic) deg f = 3 (cubic)

4.2 Quadratic polynomial (deg f = 2)

A quadratic polynomial is a polynomial of degree 2. It has the form

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, with a 6= 0.

Its graph is a parabola. The roots of it are given by the formula

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a
The discriminant of f , denoted by ∆, is b2 − 4ac. Its sign is related to the nature of the roots
of f as follows:
Sign of ∆ ∆<0 ∆=0 ∆>0
Nature of the roots No real root One double real root Two distinct real roots

The relationship between the graph of f and the signs of a and ∆ is showed below.

∆<0 ∆=0 ∆=0

No real root One double real root Two distinct real roots

a>0

a<0
Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions 4-3

Example 1. Find the maximum/minimum value of f (x) = −x2 + 4x − 7.

Solution.

f (x) = −x2 + 4x − 7
= −(x2 − 4x + 7)
= −(x2 − 4x + 4 + 3)
= −[(x − 2)2 + 3]
= −(x − 2)2 − 3 ≤ −3.

Therefore, the maximum value of f is −3 at x = 2, and f has no minimum value.

Example 2. Let p, q, r ∈ R. Denote by f (x) the polynomial (x − p)(x − q) − r2 .

1. Show that f (x) has real roots.

2. When exactly does f (x) have equal real roots? Justify your answer.

Solution. Let p, q, r ∈ R. Denote by f (x) the polynomial (x − p)(x − q) − r2 .

1. Note that f (x) = x2 − (p + q)x + (pq − r2 ).

Denote the discriminant of f (x) by ∆f . We have ∆f = (p + q)2 − 4(pq − r2 ) =
(p − q)2 + 4r2 .
Since p, q are real numbers, p − q is also a real number. Then ∆f = (p − q)2 + 4r2 ≥
0 + 0 = 0. Therefore f (x) has real roots.
Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions 4-4

2. f (x) has equal roots if and only if ∆f = 0. The latter happens if and only if ((p − q)2 =
0 and 4r4 = 0). This last happens if and only if (p = q and r = 0).

4.2.1 Relation Between Roots and Coefficients

Theorem 1 (Relation Between Roots and Coefficients).

1. If α and β are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, then

b c
α+β =− , and αβ = .
a a
For example, let α, β be the roots of 2x2 + 4x + 3 = 0. Then
4
α + β = − = −2
2
3
αβ =
2

2. Any quadratic equation in x can be written in the form

x2 − ( sum of roots ) x + ( produt of roots ) = 0.

For example, if α + β = 3, αβ = 4, then the equation is x2 − 3x + 4 = 0.

Example 3. Let a, b, c be numbers, with a 6= 0, and f (x) be the quadratic polynomial given
by f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Suppose that α, β are the roots of f (x). Suppose c 6= 0. Find the
α β
quadratic polynomial with leading coefficient ac whose roots are and .
β α
Solution. Let a, b, c be numbers, with a 6= 0, and f (x) be the quadratic polynomial given by
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Suppose that α, β are the roots of f (x). Suppose c 6= 0.

b c
We have α + β = − and αβ = .
a a
α β (α + β)2 − 2αβ (−b/a)2 − 2c/a b2 − 2ac
Suppose c 6= 0. Note that + = = = .
β α αβ c/a ac

α β
Also, · = 1.
β α
α β
Then the quadratic polynomial g(x) with leading coefficient ac whose roots are and is
β α
Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions 4-5

given by   2  
2b − 2ac
g(x) = ac x − − x + 1 = acx2 + (2ac − b2 )x + ac.
ac


Example 4. Let a, b, c be real numbers, with a 6= 0 and c 6= 0.

Let f (x) be the quadratic polynomial given by f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Suppose α and β are
roots of f (x) with α = 2β.

Show that 2b2 = K 2 ac. Here K is a positive integer whose value you have to determined
explicitly.

Solution. Let a, b, c be real numbers, with a 6= 0 and c 6= 0. Let f (x) be the quadratic
polynomial given by f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Suppose α = 2β.

Since α, β are the roots of f (x) , we have

(
α + β = −b/a
αβ = c/a

b c
Then we have 3β = α + β = − and 2β 2 = αβ = .
a a
Therefore 9c/a = 18β 2 = 2 · (3β)2 = 2(−b/a)2 = 2b2 /a2

Hence 2b2 = 9ac = 32 ac. 

Example 5. Let m be a real number.

Let f (x) be the polynomial given by f (x) = x2 − (m − 1)x + 3(m − 5).

Suppose α, β are the roots of f (x).

1. Show that α, β are real and distinct.

2. Suppose α < β. Show that α < 3 < β. (Hint: What can you say about the number
(α − 3)(β − 3)?)

Solution. Let m be a real number. Let f (x) be the polynomial given by f (x) = x2 − (m −
1)x + 3(m − 5). Suppose α, β are the roots of f (x).

1. Denote the discriminant of f (x) by ∆f .

Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions 4-6

We have ∆f = [−(m − 1)]2 − 4 · 1 · 3(m − 5) = · · · = m2 − 14m + 61 = (m − 7)2 + 12 ≥

12 > 0.
Hence α, β are real and distinct.

2. Suppose α < β.
We have (α −3)(β −3) = αβ −3(α +β) +9 = 3(m−5)−3{−[−(m−1)]}+ 9 = −3 < 0.
Then α − 3 < 0 < β − 3 or β − 3 < 0 < α − 3.
Therefore α < 3 < β or β < 3 < α. Since α < β, we have α < 3 < β.

4.3 Factorization of Polynomials

A polynomial is said to be reducible if it can be factorized into a product of polynomials of

lower degrees. Otherwise, it is said to be irreducible.

A quadratic polynomial is irreducible if ∆ < 0 and reducible if ∆ ≥ 0.

Example 6. f (x) = x2 +3x+2 has discriminant ∆ = 32 −4(1)(2) = 1 > 0. That means f (x)
has two distinct real roots and so is reducible. Indeed, the roots can be easily computed to
be −1 and −2 and f (x) can be factorized as f (x) = (x + 1)(x + 2).

Example 7. f (x) = x2 + 3x + 4 has discriminant ∆ = 32 − 4(1)(4) = −7 ≤ 0. That means

f (x) has no real root and is irreducible.

Theorem 2 (Remainder Theorem).

When a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − c, the remainder is f (c).

Example 8. Consider that f (x) = 2x2 + x − 1 is divided by x + 2. By remainder theorem,

the remainder is f (−2) = 5. It can also be verified using long division: The quotient and
reminder can be found to be is 2x − 3 and 5 respectively and so

f (x) = (x + 2)(2x − 3) + 5.

If f (c) = 0, we have the following special case.

Theorem 3 (Factor Theorem).

x − c is a factor of a polynomial f (x) ⇐⇒ f (c) = 0.

Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions 4-7

Example 9. Factorize f (x) = −2x3 + 4x2 − 6

Solution. We try to find a root first. Consider the following trials:

f (0) = −6, f (1) = −4, f (2) = −6 . . . They are not zero.

f (−1) = 0 =⇒ x − (−1) = x + 1 is a factor of f.

By long division,
f (x) = (x + 1)(−2x2 + 6x − 6),
which cannot be further factorized because the quadratic factor −2x2 + 6x − 6, with dis-
criminant ∆ = 62 − 4(−2)(−6) = −12 < 0, is irreducbile. 

Example 10. Factorize g(x) = x3 − x2 − 8x + 12.

Solution. g(2) = 0 =⇒ x − 2 is a factor. By long division,

g(x) = (x − 2)(x2 + x − 6)
= (x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 2)
= (x − 2)2 (x + 3)1 .

In the factorization of g(x) above, the power of the factor x − 2 and x + 3 is 2 and 1
respectively. We say that 2 is a root of multiplicity 2 and −3 is a root of multiplicity 1.

Example 11. Let h(x) = (x + 1)2 (x − 5)6 (x2 + x + 1000)9 . Note that the factor x2 + x + 1000
is irreducible. Therefore, h(x) has only two real roots: −1 with multiplicity 2, and 5 with
multiplicity 6.

Graphical Behavior of Polynomials at roots

If a polynomial contains a factor of the form (x − h)p , the behavior near the
root h is determined by the power p, i.e., the multiplicity p.

• The graph of a polynomial will touch the x−axis at h with even multi-
plicity. The graph will cross the x−axis at h with odd multiplicity.

• The sum of the multiplicities is the degree of the polynomial function.

Example 12. Solve the polynomial inequality

x3 + 7x2 < 4x + 28
Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions 4-8

Solution.
x3 + 7x2 < 4x + 28
x3 + 7x2
− 4x − 28 < 0
(x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 7) < 0
Method 1. The roots of the polynomial function on the left side of the inequality are: -7, -2
and 2, which divides the number line into four intervals:

(−∞, −7), (−7, −2), (−2, 2), and (2, ∞).

(−∞, −7) (−7, −2) (−2, 2) (2, ∞)

(x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 7) − + − +

∴ x ∈ (−∞, −7) ∪ (−2, 2).

Method 2. The roots of the polynomial function on the left side of the inequality are: -7, -2
and 2 with multiplicity 1 respectively. The figure below shows a rough sketch of the graph
of y = (x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 7).

For (x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 7) < 0, i.e., y < 0, we have x < −7 or −2 < x < 2.

HOW TO: Given a graph of a polynomial function of degree n, identify

the roots and their multiplicities.

• If the graph crosses the x−axis and appears almost linear at the inter-
cept, it is a single root.

• If the graph touches the x−axis and bounces off of the x−axis, it is a
root with even multiplicity.

• If the graph crosses the x−axis at a root, it is a root with odd multiplicity.

• The sum of the multiplicities is the degree n.

Chapter 4: Polynomial Functions 4-9

Example 13. Use the graph of the polynomial function of degree 6 to identify the roots of
the function and their possible multiplicities.

Solution. The polynomial function is of degree 6. Therefore, the sum of the multiplicities
must be 6.

Starting from the left, the first root occurs at x = −3. The graph touches the x−axis, so the
multiplicity of this root must be even.

The next root occurs at x = −1. The graph looks almost linear at this point. This is a single
root of multiplicity 1.

The last root occurs at x = 4. The graph crosses the x−axis, so the multiplicity of the root
must be odd that is greater than 1.

Since the multiplicity of the first and last roots must be 6 − 1 = 5, the root x = −3 has
multiplicity 2 and the root x = 4 has multiplicity 3.