Micro-link College Information Technology

Introduction to Instrumentation(EEng4153)

Chapter 2: Sensors & Applications

By Abrham A.
2023 GC
Introduction To Instrumentation
Outline
Sensor Definition

Passive Sensors

Active Sensors

Discrete Output Sensors

 Sensors and Transducers
• ‘Sensor' is `a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it into a signal
which can be measured or recorded.
E.g. : Thermistor

• ‘Transducer' is 'a device that transfers power from one system to another in the same or in
the different form'.
E.g. Thermistor with it associate circuit convert heat to electricity.

As a comparison……

▪ ‘Sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the sensing element plus any
associated circuitry.
▪ All transducers would thus contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would also be
transducers.
4
 Or we can defined as:-
• Transducer:
• a device that converts energy from one form to another
• Sensor:
• Converts a physical parameter to an electrical output (a type of transducer, e.g. a
microphone)
• Actuator:
• Converts an electrical signal to a physical output (opposite of a sensor, e.g. a speaker)

Sensing process

11-May-23 5
 Cont…

Input Output
Sensing
element Measured value
True value

Signal
processing
Signal element Data
conditioning presentation
element element
6
 Sensing Element
• This is the front-end element which is in contact with the measurand and its function is
conversion of the non-electrical input variable to proportional electrical variable output
suitable for further conditioning and processing in the subsequent electrical/electronic sub
systems.

Examples :

• Thermocouple produce millivolt of e.m.f. depends on temperature

• Strain gauge produce resistance depends on mechanical strain / tension

• If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with the
process is termed as the primary sensing element, and the others called as secondary
sensing elements.
11-May-23 7
 Signal conditioning element

▪ This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more
suitable for further processing, usually a DC voltage, DC current or frequency
signal.

▪ Examples :

▪ Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change

▪ Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts

▪ Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency

voltage.

11-May-23 8
 Signal processing element

• This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more
suitable for presentation.

Examples :

• Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital form

for input to a computer

• Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the
incoming digital data.

11-May-23 9
 Data Presentation Element

• This presents the measured value in a form which can be easily recognized by the
observer.

• Examples :
• Simple pointer–scale indicator (Clock)
• Chart recorder
• Alphanumeric display (LCD)
• Visual display unit (VDU):-Tv

11-May-23 10
 Examples of Measurement Systems

• Electromechanical generator- electrical Comparator application which switches the

power from mechanical energy output negative when the input passes upward
• Generate voltage roughly proportional to through a positive reference voltage.
shaft speed. very precise voltages for certain
ranges of shaft speeds.
 More on a transducer
• Transducer is device that converts one form energy to another form of energy.

• The majority either convert electrical energy to mechanical displacement or convert some non-electrical
physical quantity, such as temperature, sound or light to an electrical signal.

• In other word it is a device that is capable of converting the physical quantity into a proportional
electrical quantity such as voltage or current.

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 Functions of Transducer

▪ To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency of some measurand.
▪ To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately processed and applied to
readout device, gives accurate quantitative data about the measurand.

Measurand
Transducer Electrical
output

Excitation

Measurand – refers to the quantity, property or condition which the transducer translates to an
electrical signal.

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 Block Diagram of a Transducer

• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each other i.e. the sensing
element and transduction element.

• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device producing measurable response to
change in physical conditions.

• The transduction element convert the sensor output to suitable electrical form.

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 Transducers Selection Factors
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on the basis of operating
principle used by them. The operating principle used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive ,
optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.

2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce detectable output.

3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range requirement and have a good
resolution over the entire range.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring mechanical quantities.
There are situation where the actual quantity is being measured is in one plan and the
transducer is subjected to variation in another plan.

15
Cont…
6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output relationship as
described by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.

7.Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet the desired time domain
specification like peak overshoot, rise time, setting time and small dynamic error.

8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input impedance and low output impedance to
avoid loading effects.

9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the transducer selected to work under
specified environmental conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not break down.

10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted
signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.
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 Classification of Transducers/Sensors
 Sensors can be classified, among others, according to one of the following criteria
 Power supply requirements
 Passive and active
 Nature of the output signal
 Digital and analog
 Measurement operational mode
 Deflection and null modes
 Input/output dynamic relationships
 Zero, first, second order, etc.
 Measurand
 Mechanical, thermal, magnetic, radiant, chemical
 Physical measurement variable
 Resistance, inductance, capacitance, etc.

11-May-23 17
 Active and passive Transducers
Active transducers :

• These transducers do not need any external source of power for their operation. Therefore they are
also called as self generating type transducers.

I. The active transducer are self generating devices which operate under the energy conversion
principle.

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Active and passive Transducers

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 Active and passive Transducers

• Passive Transducers :

I. These transducers need external source of power for their

operation. So they are not self generating type transducers.

II. A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is

used as an external power source.

III. These transducers produce the output signal in the form of

variation in resistance, capacitance, inductance or some
other electrical parameter in response to the quantity to be
measured.

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 Active and passive Transducers/Sensor

11-May-23 21
 Primary and Secondary Transducers/Sensor

▪ Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical device.

▪ The mechanical device converts the physical quantity to be measured into a

mechanical signal.

▪ Such mechanical device are called as the primary transducers, because they deal
with the physical quantity to be measured.

▪ The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into a corresponding
electrical signal. Such electrical device are known as secondary transducers.

11-May-23 22
 Primary and Secondary Transducers/Sensor
• Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary
transducer. It convert pressure (the quantity to be
measured) into displacement(the mechanical
signal).
• The displacement is then converted into change
in resistance using strain gauge. Hence strain
gauge acts as the secondary transducer.

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 Deflection and null (operational mode)
▪ Deflection mode
• The sensor or instrument generates a response that is a deflection or a
deviation from the initial condition of the instrument
• The deflection is proportional to the measurand of interest
▪ Null mode
• An instrument used to measure an electrical quantity by adjusting known
quantities in the circuit until a reading of zero is obtained.
• The sensor or instrument exerts an influence on the measured system so as to
oppose the effect of the measurand
• The influence and measurand are balanced (typically through feedback) until
they are equal but opposite in value, yielding a null measurement
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 Analog and Digital sensor/Transducer
▪ Analog transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous function
of time.

• Example: thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-couple etc.

▪ Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal of the form of pulse or
discrete output.

▪ Examples: Shaft encoder, contact switch

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 Mechanical Measurand

▪ Displacement

▪ Resistive sensors

▪ Capacitive sensors

▪ Inductive sensors

▪ Force and acceleration

▪ Strain gauges

▪ Cantilever beam-based sensors

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 Passive Transducers
▪ Resistive transducers :
• Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the resistance change
due to the change in some physical phenomenon.

• The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a simple equation.

R = ρL/A

Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω

L = length of conductor in m

A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2

ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.

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 Resistive Transducers/Sensors

Some of resistive type transducers are:-

❑Potentiometers (POT)

❑Strain gauge

❑Resistance thermometer …[Reading Assignment]

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 Position and motion measuring devices
▪ Potentiometers are a convenient method of converting the displacement in a sensor to an

electrical variable.

▪ In a very simple term A potentiometer is a device which changes the mechanical

displacement in to a voltage difference.

▪ The wiper or slider arm of a linear potentiometer can be mechanically connected to the

moving section of a sensor.

▪ For stability, wire-wound devices should be used, but in environmentally-unfriendly

conditions, lifetime of the potentiometer may be limited by dirt, contamination, and wear.

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 Cont’d…

• From the figure, the ratio of open circuit voltage Eth to supply
voltage Vs is given by:

E th Voltage across AB Resistanc across AB

= =
Vs Voltage across CB Resistance across CB
Where: resistance of CB = total resistance of potentiometer = R P
resistance of AB = fractional resistance = R P d dT = RP x
x = fractional displacement = d
dT

Therefore, the open ckt voltage for a linear displacement potentiometer is:
Eth = Vs x = Vs d ,i.e Voltage is proportional to displacement
dT
Open ckt voltage for an angular dispacement potentiometer is:
Eth = Vs  = Vs x, where x = 
T T is the fractional angular displacement
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 Potentiometers

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 Advantage of Potentiometers

▪ They are inexpensive.

▪ Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements are
not particularly severe.

▪ They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.

▪ Electrical efficiency is Very High, and they provide sufficient output to allow
control operations.

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 Strain Gauges
▪ The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses electric resistance
variation in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on wires.

▪ It is a very versatile detector and transducer for measuring weight, pressure,

mechanical force, or displacement.

▪ Stress is defined by Force/Area, so that in Figure (a) below the stress experienced
by the body is +F/A

▪ The positive sign indicating a tensile stress which tends to increase the length of
the body.

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 Strain Gauges
• In Figure (b) the stress is −F/A, the negative sign indicating a compressive stress which tends to
reduce the length of the body.

▪The effect of the applied stress is to produce a strain in the body which is defined by

Strain = Change in length Original unstressed length

▪ Figure (a) above the strain is e = +ΔL /L (tensile), and in (b) the strain is e = −ΔL /L (compressive);

▪ In both cases the strain is longitudinal, i.e. along the direction of the applied stress.

▪ The relationship between strain and stress is linear for a given body over a certain range of values.
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 Strain Gauges
▪ Increase in length of the body is accompanied by a decrease in cross-sectional area, i.e. a
reduction in width and thickness.

▪ Thus in Figure (a) the longitudinal tensile strain is accompanied by a transverse compressive
strain, and

▪ In Figure (b) the longitudinal compressive strain is accompanied by a transverse tensile

strain.

▪ The relation between longitudinal strain eL and accompanying transverse strain eT is:
eT = −veL
where ν is Poisson’s ratio, which has a value between 0.25 and 0.4 for most materials.
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 Strain Gauges
▪ To Sum up, A strain gauge is a metal or semiconductor element whose resistance changes
when under strain.

▪ Strain Gauges are designed to convert mechanical motion into an electronic signal.

▪ They are used to measure displacement, force, load, pressure, torque or weight.

▪ They are able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range 0–50 μm, and are
typically used as part of other transducers
▪ For example diaphragm pressure sensors that convert pressure changes into small
displacements of the diaphragm.

▪ The basic concept is if a wire is held under tension, it gets slightly longer and its cross-sectional
area is reduced. This changes its resistance (R).
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 Strain Gauges
▪ Resistance is proportion to the Gauge factor ▪ The resistance of an element of length l, cross-
(GF) of the wire's resistance. sectional area A and resistivity ρ is given by:

▪ We can derive the relationship between changes ▪ Strain gauges ρ,L and A change if the element is
in resistance and strain by considering the strained, so that the changes in resistance ∆R is
factors which influence the resistance of the
given by:
element.
 R   R   R 
R =   L +    A +   
 L   A    
 L L
i.e R = L − 2 A + 
A A A
Dividing throughout by R =  L yields
A
R L A 
= − +
R L A 
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 Strain Gauges
▪ Since cross-sectional area
A = wt
A w t
= + = 2eT
By using differential equations A w t
where eT is the transverse strain in the element,then
R 
= eL − 2 ( −veL ) +
R 

= (1 + 2v ) eL +

dim ensional effct
piezoresistive effect

▪ Note that the change in resistance is a function of change in dimensions

 length (∆L/L) and area (2v*∆L/L) plus
 the change in resistivity due to strain induced changes in the lattice structure of the material, ∆ρ/ ρ

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 Strain Gauges
▪ Gauge factor G of a strain gauge defined by the ratio (fractional change in
resistance)/(strain), which is useful in comparing various strain gage materials.
▪ Hence R
= Ge
== R

▪ The gage factor and resistance of the gage are typically specified by the manufacturer.

▪ Gage factors are typically between 1.5 and 4.0 but can be as high as 6.0 (other special
materials have higher values)

▪ To measure small changes in resistance, and compensate for the temperature sensitivity,
strain gauges are almost always used in a bridge configuration with a voltage or current
excitation source.
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 Strain Gauges
▪ The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated below, consists of four resistive arms with an
excitation voltage, applied across the bridge.

▪ The maximum current that can be allowed to flow in a strain gauge is in the region of 5 to
50 mA depending on the type.

▪ Thus, the maximum voltage that can be applied is limited and consequently, as the
resistance change in a strain gauge is typically small, the bridge output voltage is also
small and amplification has to be carried out.

▪ This adds to the cost of using strain gauges.

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 Strain Gauges

11-May-23 42
 Inductive Sensor
▪ The linear variable-differential transformer, LVDT, is an inductive transducer finding many
applications.

▪ Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are devices that are used for measuring small
distances and are an alternative to the potentiometer.

▪ The device consists of a primary coil with two secondary windings one on either side of the primary.

▪ A movable core when centrally placed in the primary will give equal coupling to each of the
secondary coils.

▪ When an ac voltage is applied to the primary, equal voltages will be obtained from the secondary
windings which are wired in series opposition to give zero output voltage, as shown in Fig. below.
43
 Inductive Sensor
▪ When the core is slightly displaced an output voltage proportional to the displacement will be
obtained.

▪ These devices are not as cost effective as potentiometers but have the advantage of being
noncontact. The outputs are electrically isolated, accurate, and have better longevity than
potentiometers.

Demonstrated is (a) the LVDT with a movable core and three windings and

(b) the secondary voltage versus core displacement for the connections shown.
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 LVDT Working Principle

11-May-23 45
 Capacitive Sensor
▪ The capacitance between two parallel plates of area A separated by distance x is:
𝐴
𝐶= 𝜖0 ∈𝑟
𝑋
▪ In principle it is possible to monitor displacement by changing any of the three
parameters.

▪ However, the method that is easiest to implement and that is most commonly used is
to change the separation between the plates.

▪ Note that the sensitivity increases as the plate separation decreases.

∆𝐶 𝐴
𝐾= = −𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 2
∆𝑋 𝑋
46
 Capacitive Sensor
The capacitance between two plates is determined by three things

▪ Size of the plates: capacitance increases as the plate size increases (Area)

▪ Gap Size: capacitance decreases as the gap increase.

▪ Material between the plates (the dielectric): Dielectric material will cause the capacitance to increase or
decrease depending on the material.

▪ Used for industrial applications such as

• To measure liquid levels

• To measure humidity and material composition

• To detect position

11-May-23 47
 Variable differential capacitor

. X=Z

11-May-23 48
 Variable differential capacitor

11-May-23 49
 Piezoelectric Sensors
▪ There is a class of piezoelectric materials which can serve as mechanical input transducers,
enabling the measurement of pressure, force, displacement and other related physical
phenomenon.

▪ Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain materials to develop an electric charge that is

proportional to a direct applied mechanical stress.

▪ These materials also show the converse effect; that is, they will deform (strain) proportionally to
an applied electric field.

▪ Some crystalline materials show piezoelectric behavior due to their unique crystal structure.

✓Natural – quartz, Rochelle salt, etc

✓Synthetic – lithium sulphate, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, etc

50
 Cont…
▪ If a force is applied to any crystal, then the crystal atoms are displaced slightly
from their normal positions in the lattice.
▪ The displacement x is proportional to the applied force F.
1
i.e x = F
k
▪ The stiffness k of the crystal is large, typically 2 x109 N C
▪ In a piezoelectric crystal, this deformation of the crystal lattice results in the
crystal acquiring a net charge q, proportional to x,

q = Kx, Thus ✓ Piezoelectric materials

1 K when stretched or
q = K ( )F = F = dF compressed generate electric
k k
charges with one face of the
KC
Where: d = is the material becomes positively
k N
charged and the opposite
charge sensitivity to force face negatively charged
K=piezoelectric constant (C/N)
51
 Cont’d…
▪ Thus a piezoelectric crystal gives a direct electrical output, proportional to the applied
force

✓So that a secondary displacement sensor is not required

▪ The piezoelectric effect is reversible – where a voltage V applied to the crystal causes a
mechanical displacement x,

x = dV − − − − − inverse piezoelectric effect

▪ The dimensions d (C/N), are identical with the dimensions m/V of d in above equation

52
 Cont…
▪ In order to measure the charge q, metal electrodes are deposited on opposite faces of the
crystal to give a capacitor
▪ The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor formed from a rectangular block of crystal
of thickness t is given by:

 o r A q
C= and Since C=
t V
q dF dFt  d  F
V= = = =  t = t.g.P
C  o r A  o r A   o r  A
t
Where P - the applied pressure F/A
g - the voltage sensitivity factor

✓The voltage is proportional to the applied pressure

53
 Cont…
✓Applications : piezoelectric sensors are used for measurement
of
✓Force, torque and strain
✓Pressure
✓Sound
✓Motion

54
 Ultrasonic Sensor
▪ For noncontact distance measurements, an active sensor which transmits some kind of a
pilot/preliminary signal and receives a reflected signal can be designed.

▪ When the waves are incident on an object, part of their energy is reflected. In many practical
cases, the ultrasonic energy is reflected in a diffuse manner.

▪ That is, regardless of the direction from which the energy comes, it is reflected almost
uniformly within a wide solid angle, which may approach 180◦.

55
 Ultrasonic Sensor
▪ An ultrasonic sensor is a device that measures the distance between two objects using high-
frequency sound waves.

▪ Ultrasonic soundwaves are those with a frequency of 20 kHz or higher.

▪ Average ultrasonic sensor range is between 20 kHz and 1 MHz.

The Ultrasonic Basic Operating Principle:

▪ Piezoelectric components are used for the emitting and receiving transducer

▪ An applied voltage causes the piezo element to begin vibrating.

▪ The vibration produces high-frequency sound waves (transmitting mode)

▪ These impulses are reflected by the target – Echo returns (receiving mode) 56
 Ultrasonic Sensor
▪ By measuring the time of flight the echo takes to return, the distance can be calculated by
using the speed of sound in air. (time-of-flight measurement)

s =(t ∗c)/2 with c=344 m/s (air)

▪ Ultrasonic level sensors emit sound waves, and the liquid surface reflects the sound waves
back to the source.

▪ The transit time is proportional to the distance between the liquid surface and the transmitter.

▪ These sensors are ideal for noncontact level sensing of very viscous fluids such as heavy oil,
latex, and slurries.

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 Light detectors
Photoconductive cells
▪ The photoconductive cell is a two terminal semiconductor device whose terminal
resistance will vary (linearly) with the intensity of the incident light.
▪ It is also called photo resistive device
▪ The photoconductive material most frequently used include
✓Cadmium sulfide (CdS) and Cadmium Selenide (CdSe)

58
 Cont…
▪ As the illumination on the device increases in intensity, the energy of a large number of
electrons in the structure will also increase because of the increased availability of the
photon packages of energy

▪ The result is an increasing number of relatively free electrons in the structure and a
decrease in the terminal resistance.

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 Photodiode
▪ The photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose region of operation is limited to the
reverse-biase region

▪ If a p-n junction of a photodiode is forward biased and is exposed to light of a proper wavelength,
the current increase will be very small with respect to a dark current

▪ If a junction is reverse biased, the current will increase quite noticeably.

▪ The illuminace to current response of a typical photodiode is

60
 Phototransistors

▪ A phototransistor operates as a combination of a reverse biased photodiode and a

conventional transistor
▪ The light incident on the collector-base junction generates electron-hole-pairs.
▪ The photon-induced base current is then amplified as in a conventional transistor, which
makes the transistor a very sensitive light detector

61
 Discrete output sensors
▪ Discrete Sensors have existed in the automation & control landscape long before
the advent of PLC, supplementing relay logic.

▪ The function of a discrete sensor is to send high/low, on/off or yes/no signals to the
controller regarding the quantity of a physical parameter.

▪ In this case data is transmitted digitally.

▪ Discrete signals will be non continuous with time.

▪ It can be represented in “bits” for serial transmission and in “bytes” for parallel
transmission.

Example: shaft encoders

11-May-23 62
 Shaft Encoder

▪ Optical shaft encoders produce information about angular displacement in digital form.

▪ This is useful because a digital output is compatible with computers and other digital
electronic systems

▪ An optical encoder is a transducer in which linear or angular displacement varies the

transmission of light from a sources to a detector.

• There are two types of encoder

• Incremental encoder
• Absolute encoder

63
 Incremental Encoder

▪ The incremental encoder produces an output signal showing that some displacement of
a shaft has taken place

▪ The output signals are counted and from these the angular displacement relative to the
starting position can be measured

Incremental shaft encoder

64
 Cont…
▪ The incremental shaft encoder consists of a disc rigidly attached to the shaft whose
displacement is to be measure.

▪ The disc has a number of equally spaced slots through which a beam of light can pass.

▪ A light source, consisting of two light emitting diodes (LEDs), is aligned with the disc.

▪ If the light from the LEDs is uninterrupted, it is detected by the light detectors

▪ The order in which the light is interrupted indicates the direction of rotation
▪ The diagram shown below is a typical incremental shaft encoder disc
▪ As the shaft rotates, the light shines through the equally spaced windows in the disc, and is
blocked by the opaque sections of the disc
▪ Hence a pulsed light output from the light detectors is produced
65
▪ The number of pulses detected is proportional to the angle through which the shaft and disc travel

▪ The angular displacement of the shaft can be determined relative to an arbitrarily selected starting
point.

▪ The resolution of the disc depends on how much windows it contains.

▪ The more windows the disc has, the higher the resolution

▪ Resolution is determined by dividing 2π radians or 360˚ by the number of windows in the disc.

▪ The number of windows on the rotating disc can vary from 60 to well over 1000 with multi-tracks,
allowing very good resolution to achieve.
66
▪ The number of windows on the rotating disc can vary from 60 to well over 1000
with multi-tracks, allowing very good resolution to achieve.

▪ Typical resolution of optical incremental shaft encoders are 0.0034 radians (0.2°) to
0.102 radians (6˚).
 Absolute Encoder

▪ The absolute encoder produces an output signal which gives the shaft displacement from a null position.
▪ The figure below shows a typical absolute shaft encoder

▪ It differs from the incremental encoder in that the output signal it produces is in binary or coded form
▪ This provides an absolute measurement of the rotary position of the shaft
68
 Cont’d…
▪ A rotating disc, with a number of concentric Position=Counter Value*Resolution
tracks, is attached to the shaft
▪ A collection of light sources (usually LEDs) are
aligned with the tracks of the disc
▪ A light detector is similarly aligned with the disc
and beams to detect the light which passes
through the disc
▪ A ‘closed’ window, which is opaque and so
prevents light from the LEDs reaching the
detector, represents a binary ‘0’
▪ An ‘open’ window, which allows light from the
LEDs through to the detector, indicates a binary
‘1’

▪ The combinations of open and closed windows

follow a binary sequence from ‘0’ to ( 2 ) −1
n

▪ where n is the number of tracks

69
 Cont’d…
▪ The binary absolute shaft encoder disc shown here has four
tracks and consequently there are four bits in each binary
number
▪ The number of positions which can be detected is 16 , which
means the binary sequence runs from 0 to 15
▪ The resolution, determined by dividing 2π radians or 360˚ by
the number of windows in the disc (in this case 16), is 0.393
radians or 22.5˚
▪ If we use a rotating disc with eight tracks, giving eight bits in
each binary number, the number of positions (i.e, Equivalent
to no of windows in incremental encoder) that can be
detected is :

2 = 256
8

▪ The resolution is then 0.024 radians or 1.41˚

70
 Cont’d…
▪ In practice there are problems with this type of binary absolute encoder

▪ The exact alignment of the window edges in each track is difficult to achieve, and consequently errors are
some times introduced

▪ The major disadvantage of the binary absolute encoder is that on many occasions more than one window
will change state for one increment of the disc

▪ This is because of the nature of the binary number systems. Examples of this are: 0011 to 0100 (3 to 4 in
base 10); from 0111 to 1000 (7 to 8 ); and so on

▪ The most significant change is from 1111 to 0000 (15 to 0)

▪ Hence if the absolute encoder system misread one window, it can lead to serious errors in position
measurement

71
 Cont’d…

▪ To overcome this gray code was developed

▪ This produces a sequence where only one ‘bit’ or window changes condition as the sequence
progresses.
▪ Gray code is a digital code in which only one bit at a time changes as the value incrementally
increases or decreases
• 0000; 0001;0011;0010;0110;0111;0101;0100
• Applications
• Controlled machines: computer controlled lathes or milling machines
• Robotics and positioning systems
• Computer ‘mouse’
• Etc

72
 Cont’d…
.
position sensor system uses a 250-slot disk. The current value of the counter is
00100110. What is the angle of the shaft being measured?

SOLUTION

For a 250-slot disk, each slot represents 360°/250 = 1.44°, and

✓a count of 00100110 = 38 decimal,

✓so the position is 38 × 1.44° = 54.72°.

73
 Cont’d…

An incremental encoder has 360 slots. Starting from the reference point, the photo
.sensor counts 100 slots clockwise (CW), 30 slots counterclockwise (CCW), then 45 slots CW. What
is the current position?

SOLUTION

✓If the disk has 360 slots, then each slot represents 1° of rotation. Starting at the reference point,
we first rotated 100° CW, then reversed 30° to 70°, and finally reversed again for 45°, bringing us
finally to 115° (CW) from the reference point.

(or 100o-30o+45o=115o CW)

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Assignment-Proximity Sensors
▪ A proximity sensor simply tells the controller whether a moving part is at a certain
place or not with out having physical contact.

▪ There are different types of proximity sensors including:

➢ Inductive proximity Sensors

➢ Capacitive proximity Sensors

➢ Optical proximity Sensors

➢ Ultrasonic proximity sensors

➢ Laser proximity Sensors