SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

CONTENTS TO BE COVERED

Single Phase Transformers: Constructional features

of transformer, operating principle and applications,
equivalent circuit, phasor analysis and calculation of
performance indices.
INTRODUCTION
A transformer is a static piece of equipment
by means of which an electric power is
transformed from one alternating current
circuit to another with the desired change in
voltage and current (rising or lowering),
without any change in the frequency.

The use of transformer in transmission system

INTRODUCTION
It essentially consists of two windings, the primary
and secondary, wound on a common laminated
magnetic core as shown in Figure.
The winding connected to the a.c. source is
called primary winding (or primary) and the one
connected to load is called secondary
winding (or secondary).
The alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude
is to be changed is applied to the primary.
Depending upon the number of turns of the
primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an alternating
e.m.f. E2 is induced in the secondary. This induced
e.m.f. E2 in the secondary causes a secondary
current I2.
Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear
across the load.
If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer. On
the other hand, if V2 < V1, it is called a step-
down transformer.
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
A single phase transformer consists of primary
and secondary windings put on a magnetic cores.
Magnetic core is used to confine flux to a
definite path.
The core is made from thin sheets (called
laminations) of high grade silicon steel.
The lamination reduces eddy current losses and
the silicon steel reduces hysteresis loss.
The transformer consists two basic parts
(i) Magnetic core and (ii) Winding or coils
The core of the transformer is either square or
rectangular in size.
The vertical portion, on which coils are
wounded is called limb. The top and bottom
portion (horizontal) are called yoke of the core.
Windings
Transformer windings are made up of two
conductors copper and aluminium.
In distribution and small power transformer,
aluminium windings are used.
For large power transformers, copper
windings are more common.
To select the right material, the designer has to
consider several factors such as weight,
maximum size, availability and cost of material.
The windings are coated with insulating material,
lacquer or varnish.
Transformer construction is divided into two parts
1. Core type transformer
In this type, the magnetic circuit consists of two vertical legs
or limbs with two horizontal sections, called yoke.
To keep leakage flux to a minimum, half of each winding is
placed on each leg of the core.
The low voltage(LV) winding is placed next to the core and
the high voltage (HV) winding is placed around the LV
winding to reduce the insulating material required.
Thus the windings are
arranged as concentric coil.
Such winding are also
Called concentric or
Cylindrical winding.
2. Shell type transformer
In shall type transformer both primary and
secondary windings are wounded on the central
limb, and the two outer limbs complete the low
reluctance path.
Each winding is subdivided into two sections LV and HV
are alternative put in the form of a sandwich. Such a
winding is therefore is called sandwich or disc winding.
Working of single phase transformer
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the
primary, an alternating flux Ø is set up in the
core.
This alternating flux links both the windings and
induces e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them according to
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and
e.m.f. E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.
 Note that magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the
number of turns on the secondary and primary
respectively. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we
get a step-up transformer. On the other hand, if N2 < N1,
then E2 < E1 (or V2 < V1) and we get a step-down
transformer.
The following points may be noted carefully:
(i) The transformer action is based on the laws of
electromagnetic
induction.
(ii) There is no electrical connection between the
primary and secondary. The a.c. power is transferred
from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(iii) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power
has the same
frequency as the input power.
Theory of an Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one that has,

(i) no winding resistance

(ii) no leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the
windings
(iii) no iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis
losses) in the core
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the
primary, it draws a small magnetizing current Im which
lags behind the applied voltage by 90°. This
alternating current Im produces an alternating flux Ø
which is proportional to and in phase with it.
The alternating flux Ø links both the windings and
induces e.m.f. E1 in the primary and e.m.f. E2 in the
secondary. The primary e.m.f. E1 is, at every instant,
equal to and in opposition to V1 (Lenz’s law).
Both e.m.f.s E1 and E2 lag behind flux Ø by 90°.
However, their magnitudes depend upon the number
of primary and secondary turns.
E.M.F. EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is

applied to the primary. The sinusoidal flux Ø produced by the
primary can be represented as:

The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is

It is clear from the above equation that maximum
value of induced e.m.f. in the primary is,
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)
PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER

The practical transformer has

(i) iron losses

(ii) winding resistances and

(iii) magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage
reactances.
Iron losses. Since the iron core is subjected to
alternating flux, there occurs eddy current and
hysteresis loss in it. These two losses together are
known as iron losses or core losses.

Winding resistances. Since the windings consist

of copper conductors, it follows that both primary
and secondary will have winding resistance. The
primary resistance R1 and secondary
resistance R2 act in series with the respective
windings.

Leakage reactances. Both primary and

secondary currents produce flux. The flux Ø
which links both the windings is the useful
flux and is called mutual flux.
However, primary current would produce some flux
Ø which would not link the secondary winding.
Similarly, secondary current would produce some flux Ø
that would not link the primary winding.
The flux such as Ø1 or Ø2 which links only one
winding is called leakage flux. The leakage flux paths
are mainly through the air.
The effect of primary leakage flux Ø1 is to
introduce an inductive reactance X1 in series with
the primary winding. Similarly, the secondary
leakage flux Ø2 introduces an inductive reactance
X2 in series with the secondary winding.
leakage flux in a transformer is quite small (about 5% of Ø) compared
to the mutual flux Ø.
Practical Transformer on No Load
The primary will draw a small current I0 to supply (i)
the iron losses and (ii) a very small amount of
copper loss in the primary.
The no load current component can be resolved into
two parts.
(1) Active or working or iron loss component (Iw), which is
in phase with applied voltage V1. This supply iron
loss and very small primary copper loss.
(2) The magnetizing component (Im), this produces the
mutual flux Ø in the core and lag behind V1 by 90°.

It is emphasized here that no load primary copper loss

(i.e I02 R ) is very small and may be neglected.
Therefore, the no load primary input power is practically
equal to the iron loss in the transformer i.e., No load
input power, W0 = Iron loss
IDEAL TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
Let us connect a load ZL (inductive load) across the
secondary of an ideal transformer as shown in Figure. The
secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I2 to flow through the
load.

The secondary current I2 sets up an m.m.f. N2I2 which

produces a flux in the opposite direction to the flux Ø
originally set up in the primary by the magnetizing current.
This will change the flux in the core from the
original value. However, the flux in the core
should not change from the original value.
In order to fulfill this condition, the primary must
develop an m.m.f. which exactly counterbalances the
secondary m.m.f. N2I2. Hence a primary current I1 must
flow such that:

The primary must draw enough current to

neutralize the demagnetizing effect of secondary
current so that mutual flux Ø remains constant.
PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
Two different cases can be considered
(i) When such a transformer is assumed to have no
winding resistance and leakage flux.
(ii) When the transformer has winding resistance
and leakage flux.
(i) No winding resistance and leakage flux
With this assumption, V2 = E2 and V1 = E1. Load is
considered Inductive.
The total primary current I1 must meet two
requirements viz.
(a) It must supply the no-load current I0 to
meet the iron losses in the transformer and to
provide flux in the core.
(b) It must supply a current I‘2 to counteract
the demagnetizing effect of secondary
currently I2. The magnitude of I'2 will be such that:
(ii) Transformer with resistance and leakage
reactance
There is voltage drop in R1 and X1 so that primary
e.m.f. E1 is less than the applied voltage V1.
Similarly, there is voltage drop in R2 and X2 so that
secondary terminal voltage V2 is less than the
secondary e.m.f. E2.
Inductive load is considered here.
The total primary current I1 must meet two
requirements viz.
(a) It must supply the no-load current I0 to meet the
iron losses in the transformer and to provide flux in
the core.
(b) It must supply a current I'2 to counteract the
demagnetizing effect of secondary current I2. The
magnitude of I'2 will be such that:
 Both E1 and E2 lag the mutual flux f by 90°.
The current I'2 represents the primary current
to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of secondary
current I2.
Now I'2 = K*I2 and is opposite to I2.
Also I0 is the no-load current of the transformer.
The phasor sum of I'2 and I0 gives the total
primary current I1.
IMPEDANCE RATIO

In other words, an impedance Z2 in secondary,

becomes Z2/K2 when transferred to primary.
Likewise, an impedance Z1 in the primary, becomes K2
Z1 when transferred to the secondary.
SHIFTING IMPEDANCES IN A TRANSFORMER
The resistance and reactance of one winding
can be transferred to the other by
appropriately using the factor K2.
This makes the analysis of the transformer a
simple affair because then we have to work
in one winding only.
Referred to primary
When secondary resistance or reactance is transferred
to the primary, it is divided by K2. It is then called
equivalent secondary resistance or reactance referred
to primary and is denoted by R'2 or X'2.
Referred to secondary
When primary resistance or reactance is transferred to
the secondary, it is multiplied by K2. It is then called
equivalent primary resistance or reactance referred to
the secondary and is denoted by R'1 or X'1.
EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A
LOADED TRANSFORMER
Here, R1 is the primary winding resistance and R2
is the secondary winding resistance. Similarly, X1
is the leakage reactance of primary winding and
X2 is the leakage reactance of the secondary
winding.
The parallel circuit R0 - X0 is the no-load
equivalent circuit of the transformer.
 The resistance R0 represents the core losses
(hysteresis and eddy current losses) so that current IW
which supplies the core losses is shown passing
through R0.
The inductive reactance X0 represents a loss-free
coil which passes the magnetizing current Im.

When the transformer is loaded to carry the secondary

current I2, the primary current consists of two
components:
(a) The no-load current I0 to provide magnetizing current
and the current required to supply the core losses.
(b) The primary current I'2 (=−KI2) required to supply the
load connected to the secondary.
Total primary current I1 = I0 + (− KI2 )-----Phasor sum
NUMERICAL

Q1. A single phase 50Hz transformer has

80 turns on the primary winding and 400
turns on the secondary winding. The net
cross sectional area od the core is 200cm2.
if the primary winding is connected to a
240V, 50Hz supply determine
(a) The e.m.f induced in the secondary
winding
(b) The maximum value of the flux density

in the core
Q2. The no-load current of a transformer is 5.0A at 0.3
power factor when supplied at 230V, 50Hz. The
number of turns on the primary winding is 200.
Calculate (i) maximum value of flux in the core (ii) core
loss (iii) magnetising current.
Q3. A 30kVA, 2400/120V, 50Hz transformer has
primary winding resistance of 0.1Ω and a leakage
reactance of 0.22Ω. The secondary winding resistance
is 0.035Ω and the leakage reactance is 0.012Ω. Find
the equivalent winding resistance, reactance and
impedance referred to the (i) primary side (ii)
secondary side.
Q4. A 25kVA, single-phase transformer has 250 turns
on the primary and 40 turns on the secondary winding.
The primary is connected to 1500V, 50Hz mains.
Calculate (i) secondary e.m.f. (ii) primary and
secondary current at full load (iii) maximum flux in the
core.
LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
There are two type of losses in a transformer
1. The core gets subjected to an alternating flux,
causing core losses.
2. The winding carry currents when transformer is
loaded, causing copper losses.

3. Core loss or Iron loss

A transformer core is subjected to an alternating
time varying field causing eddy current and
hysteresis losses to occur inside the core of the
transformer. The sum of these two losses is known
as core loss of the transformer.
Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic
core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of
magnetization and demagnetization. Due to
hysteresis effect there is loss of energy in this
process, which is called hysteresis loss.
The total area enclosed by the B-H loop is the
measure of the hysteresis loss per unit volume
per unit cycle. To reduce hysteresis loss one has to
use a core material for which area enclosed will be as
small as possible.
C.R.G.O (Cold-rolled grain-oriented sheet steel) is used for reducing the
core losses in transformers.
Eddy current losses
AC current is supplied to the primary winding of transformer
which sets up alternating magnetic flux.
When this flux links with secondary winding, produces
induced e.m.f in it.
Some part of this flux gets linked with other
conducting parts like iron core of transformer, which
results in induced e.m.f In it, causing small
circulating current in core. This current is called eddy
current .
Due to this current some energy dissipated in form
of heat.
The power loss due to eddy current is minimized so
that heating of the core is reduced and efficiency of
the machine or the apparatus is increased.
It is obvious if the cross sectional area of the
eddy path is reduced then eddy voltage induced
too will be reduced (Eeddy α area), hence eddy
loss will be less.
This can be achieved by using several thin
electrically insulated plates (called laminations)
stacked together to form the core instead a solid
block of iron.
1. Copper loss
The copper losses are due to the power waisted in
the form of I2R loss due to the resistance of the
primary and secondary windings. The copper loss
depends on the magnitude of the current flowing
through the windings.
Efficiency of a Transformer

Core losses are combination of hysteresis and eddy

current losses depends upon
I. Maximum flux density Bm in the core
II. Supply frequency
Since transformer is connected to constant-
frequency, constant voltage supply, both f & Bm
are constant. Hence, core or iron losses are
practically same for all loads.

Besides this copper losses vary as the square of

load current. Therefore, these losses are
variable.
Voltage regulation in Transformer
The output voltage in a transformer will not be
maintained constant from no load to the full
load condition, for a fixed input voltage in the
primary.

This is because there will be internal voltage drop

in the series leakage impedance of the
transformer the magnitude of which will depend
upon the degree of loading as well as on the
power factor of the load.

The knowledge of regulation gives us idea

about change in the magnitude of the
secondary voltage from no load to full load
condition at a given power factor.
This can be determined experimentally by direct
loading of the transformer.
To do this, primary is energized with rated voltage
and the secondary terminal voltage is recorded in
absence of any load and also in presence of full
load.
Suppose the readings of the voltmeters are
respectively V20 and V2. Therefore change in the
magnitudes of the secondary voltage is V20 – V2.
This change is expressed as a percentage of the
no load secondary voltage to express regulation.
Lower value of regulation will ensure
lesser fluctuation of the voltage across the
loads.
If the transformer were ideal regulation
would have been zero.
TRANSFORMER TESTS

The circuit constants, efficiency and voltage

regulation of a transformer can be determined by
two simple tests
(i) Open-circuit test and
(ii) Short-circuit test

These tests are very convenient as they provide

the required information without actually
loading the transformer.

Further, the power required to carry out

these tests is very small as compared with full-
load output of the transformer.
1. Open-Circuit or No-Load Test

This test is conducted to determine the iron

losses (or core losses) and parameters R0 and X0
of the transformer.
In this test, the rated voltage is applied to the primary
(usually low-voltage winding) while the secondary
is left open circuited.
The applied primary voltage V1 is measured by the
voltmeter, the no-load current I0 by ammeter and no-
load input power W0 by wattmeter as shown in Figure.
As the normal rated voltage is applied to the
primary, therefore, normal iron losses will
occur in the transformer core.
Hence wattmeter will record the iron losses
and small copper loss in the primary.
Since no-load current I0 is very small (usually
2-10 % of rated current). Cu losses in the
primary under no-load condition are
negligible as compared with iron losses.
Hence, wattmeter reading practically gives
the iron losses in the transformer.
SHORT-CIRCUIT OR IMPEDANCE TEST

This test is conducted to determine R01 (or R02),

X01 (or X02) and full-load copper losses of the
transformer.
In this test, the secondary (usually low-voltage
winding) is short-circuited by a thick conductor and
variable low voltage is applied to the primary as
shown in Figure
The low input voltage is gradually raised till at voltage
VSC, full-load current I1 flows in the primary. Then I2 in
the secondary also has full-load value since I1/I2 =
N2/N1.
Under such conditions, the copper loss in the
windings is the same as that on full load.
There is no output from the transformer under
short-circuit conditions. Therefore, input power is all
loss and this loss is almost entirely copper loss.
It is because iron loss in the core is negligibly
small since the voltage VSC is very small.
Hence, the wattmeter will practically
register the full-load copper losses in the
transformer windings.
Fig. shows the equivalent circuit of a transformer
on short circuit as referred to primary; the no-load
current being neglected due to its smallness.
Note:
The short-circuit test will give full-load Cu loss only if
the applied voltage VSC is such so as to circulate full-
load currents in the windings.
If in a short-circuit test, current value is other
than full-load value, the Cu loss will be
corresponding to that current value.
WHY TRANSFORMER RATING IN KVA?

An important factor in the design and operation of

electrical machines is the relation between the life of
the insulation and operating temperature of the
machine.
Therefore, temperature rise resulting from the
losses is a determining factor in the rating of a
machine.
We know that copper loss in a transformer depends
on current and iron loss depends on voltage.
Therefore, the total loss in a transformer depends
on the volt-ampere product only and not on the
phase angle between voltage and current i.e., it is
independent of load power factor.
For this reason, the rating of a transformer is in kVA and
not kW.
NUMERICALS

Q1. A 4kVA, 200/400V, 50 Hz, single-phase

step-down transformer has equivalent
resistance referred to primary as 0.15 ohm.
Assuming the total iron losses equal to 60W,
calculate:
(a) The total copper losses on full load
(b) The efficiency while supplying full load at
0.9 p.f. lagging
(c) The efficiency while supplying half load at
0.8 p.f. lagging