CHAPTER I.

Introduction of Statistics and Data Analysis

1.1 What is Statistics?

• The field of Statistics deals with the collection, presentation, analysis, and use of data to
make decisions, solve problems, and design products and processes. (Montgomery, D. and
Runger G.)
• Statistics is the science of learning from data, and of measuring, controlling, and
communicating uncertainty; and it thereby provides the navigation essential for controlling
the course of scientific and societal advances (Davidian, M. and Louis, T. A.,
10.1126/science.1218685).
 In simple terms, statistics is the science of data.
1.2 Sampling Procedure; Collection of Data
Simple Random Sampling
• implies that any particular sample of a specified sample size has the same chance of being
selected as any other sample of the same size.
 sample size simply means the number of elements in the sample.

1.3 Measures of Location: The Sample Mean and Median

• Measures of location are designed to provide the analyst with some quantitative values of
where the center, or some other location, of data is located.

There are other measures of central tendency that are discussed in detail in future chapters.
One important measure is the sample median. The purpose of the sample median is to reflect
the central tendency of the sample in such a way that it is uninfluenced by extreme values or
outliers.

1.4 Measures of Variability

• Sample Range and Sample Standard Deviation

CHAPTER II. Probability

2.1. Sample Space

 set of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment

 represented by the symbol S.

Example 2.1: Consider the experiment of tossing a die. If we are interested in the number that shows on
the top face, the sample space is

S ={1,2,3,4,5,6}.

If we are interested only in whether the number is even or odd, the sample space is simply

S2 ={even, odd}.

Example 2.2: An experiment consists of flipping a coin and then flipping it a second time if a head occurs.
If a tail occurs on the first flip, then a die is tossed once.

Example 2.3: Suppose that three items are selected at random from a manufacturing process. Each item is
inspected and classified defective, D, or nondefective, N.

 Sample spaces with a large or infinite number of sample points are best described by a statement
or rule method.

For example, if the possible outcomes of an experiment are the set of cities in the world with a population
over 1 million,

S ={x | x is a city with a population over 1 million},

2.2 Events

 is a subset of a sample space.

For instance, we may be interested in the event A that the outcome when a die is tossed is divisible by 3.
This will occur if the outcome is an element of the subset A = {3,6} of the sample space S1 in Example
2.1. As a further illustration, we may be interested in the event B that the number of defectives is greater
than 1 in Example 2.3. This will occur if the outcome is an element of the B ={DDN,DND,NDD,DDD}
of the sample space S.

Null Set - contains no elements at all and denoted by the symbol φ.

Complement of an event A with respect to S is the subset of all elements of S that are not in A. We
denote the complement of A by the symbol A’.

Example 2.4: Consider the sample space S ={book, cell phone, mp3, paper, stationery, laptop}. Let A =
{book, stationery, laptop, paper}. Then the complement of A is A’= {cell phone, mp3}.

Example 2.5: Let A = {a,b,c} and B = {b,c,d,e}; then A∪B = {a,b,c,d,e}.

Example 2.6: If M = {x| 3 <x<9} and N ={x| 5<x<12} , then

M∪N={x|3<x<12}.

Example 2.7. The sample space of the working time of an air conditioner is S = (0,∞ ). Let E1 be the
event the working time is no less than 1 and less than 10 and E2 be the event the working time is between
5 and 15;
E1 υ E2=

E1’=

E1’Ⴖ E2=

E1 Ⴖ E2=

Exercise #1.

1.1 List the elements of each of the following sample spaces:

(a) the set of integers between 1 and 50 divisible by 8;
(b) the set S = {x | x2 +4x−5=0};
(c) the set of outcomes when a coin is tossed until a tail or three heads appear;
(d) the set S = {x | x is a continent};
(e) the set S = {x | 2x−4 ≥ 0 and x<1}.

1.2 Use the rule method to describe the sample space S consisting of all points in the first quadrant inside
a circle of radius 3 with center at the origin.

1.3 If S = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} and A = {0,2,4,6,8}, B = {1,3,5,7,9}, C = {2,3,4,5}, and D={1,6,7}, list

the elements of the sets correspond ing to the following events:
(a) A∪C;
(b) A∩B;
(c) C’;
(d) (C’∩D)∪B;
(e) (S ∩C)’;
(f) A∩C ∩D’.

1.4 If S = {x | 0 <x<12}, M = {x | 1 <x<9} and N ={x | 0<x<5}, find

(a) M ∪N;
(b) M ∩N;
(c) M∩N.
2.3 Counting Sample Points
Multiplication Rule

Example 2.8: How many sample points are there in the sample space when a pair of dice is thrown once?

Example 2.9: A developer of a new subdivision offers prospective home buyers a choice of Tudor, rustic,
colonial, and traditional exterior styling in ranch, two-story, and split-level floor plans. In how many
different ways can a buyer order one of these homes?

Example 2.10: If a 22-member club needs to elect a chair and a treasurer, how many different ways can
these two to be elected?

Example 2.11: Sam is going to assemble a computer by himself. He has the choice of chips from two
brands, a hard drive from four, memory from three, and an accessory bundle from five local stores. How
many different ways can Sam order the parts?

Example 2.12: How many even four-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 5, 6, and 9 if
each digit can be used only once?
Example 2.13: In one year, three awards (research, teaching, and service) will be given to a class of 25
graduate students in a statistics department. If each student can receive at most one award, how many
possible selections are there?

Example 2.14: A president and a treasurer are to be chosen from a student club consisting of 50 people.
How many different choices of officers are possible if
(a) there are no restrictions;
(b) A will serve only if he is president;
(c) B and C will serve together or not at all;
(d) D and E will not serve together?
Example 2.15: In a college football training session, the defensive coordinator needs to have 10 players
standing in a row. Among these 10 players, there are 1 freshman, 2 sophomores, 4 juniors, and 3 seniors.
How many different ways can they be arranged in a row if only their class level will be distinguished?

Example 2.16: In how many ways can 7 graduate students be assigned to 1 triple and 2 double hotel
rooms during a conference?

Example 2.22: A young boy asks his mother to get 5 Game-BoyTM cartridges from his collection of 10
arcade and 5 sports games. How many ways are there that his mother can get 3 arcade and 2 sports
games?
Example 2.23: How many different letter arrangements can be made from the letters in the word
STATISTICS?

Exercise #2

2.1 Registrants at a large convention are offered 6 sightseeing tours on each of 3 days. In how many ways
can a person arrange to go on a sightseeing tour planned by this convention?

2.2 In a medical study, patients are classified in 8 ways according to whether they have blood type AB+,
AB−, A+, A−, B+, B−, O+, or O−, and also according to whether their blood pressure is low, normal, or
high. Find the number of ways in which a patient can be classified.

2.3 A certain brand of shoes comes in 5 different styles, with each style available in 4 distinct colors. If
the store wishes to display pairs of these shoes showing all of its various styles and colors, how many
different pairs will the store have on display?

2.4 A developer of a new subdivision offers a prospective home buyer a choice of 4 designs, 3 differ ent
heating systems, a garage or carport, and a patio or screened porch. How many different plans are
available to this buyer?

2.5 (a) How many three-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 if each digit
can be used only once?
(b) How many of these are odd numbers?
(c) How many are greater than 330?

2.6 In how many ways can 5 different trees be planted in a circle?

2.4 Probability of an Event

Example 2.17: A coin is tossed twice. What is the probability that at least 1 head occurs?

Example 2.18: A die is loaded in such a way that an even number is twice as likely to occur as an odd
number. If E is the event that a number less than 4 occurs on a single toss of the die, find P(E).

Example 2.19: In Example 2.25, let A be the event that an even number turns up and let B be the event
that a number divisible by 3 occurs. Find P(A ∪B) and P(A∩B).

Example 2.20: A statistics class for engineers consists of 25 industrial, 10 mechanical, 10 electrical, and 8
civil engineering students. If a person is randomly selected by the instructor to answer a question, find the
probability that the student chosen is
(a) an industrial engineering major and
(b) a civil engineering or an electrical engineering major.

Example 2.21: In a poker hand consisting of 5 cards, find the probability of holding 2 aces and 3 jacks.

2.5 Addition Rule

Example 2.21: John is going to graduate from an industrial engineering department in a university by the
end of the semester. After being interviewed at two companies he likes, he assesses that his probability of
getting an offer from company A is 0.8, and his probability of getting an offer from company B is 0.6. If
he believes that the probability that he will get offers from both companies is 0.5, what is the probability
that he will get at least one offer from these two companies?

Example 2.22: What is the probability of getting a total of 7 or 11 when a pair of fair dice is tossed?

Example 2.22: If the probabilities are, respectively, 0.09, 0.15, 0.21, and 0.23 that a person purchasing a
new automobile will choose the color green, white, red, or blue, what is the probability that a given buyer
will purchase a new automobile that comes in one of those colors?

Example 2.23: If the probabilities that an automobile mechanic will service 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 or more cars
on any given workday are, respectively, 0.12, 0.19, 0.28, 0.24, 0.10, and 0.07, what is the probability that
he will service at least 5 cars on his next day at work?

2.6 Conditional Probability, Independence, and the Product Rule

Example2.24:The probability that a regularly scheduled flight departs on time is P(D)=0.83; the
probability that it arrives on time is P(A)=0.82;andtheprobabilitythat it departs and arrives on time is
P(D∩A)=0.78.Find the probability that a plane 64 Chapter 2 Probability (a) arrives on time, given that it
departed on time, and (b) departed on time, given that it has arrived on time.

Example 2.25: Suppose that we have a fuse box containing 20 fuses, of which 5 are defective. If 2 fuses
are selected at random and removed from the box in succession without replacing the first, what is the
probability that both fuses are defective?

Example 2.26: One bag contains 4 white balls and 3 black balls, and a second bag contains 3 white balls
and 5 black balls. One ball is drawn from the first bag and placed unseen in the second bag. What is the
probability that a ball now drawn from the second bag is black?

Example 2.38: A small town has one fire engine and one ambulance available for emergencies. The
probability that the fire engine is available when needed is 0.98, and the probability that the ambulance is
available when called is 0.92. In the event of an injury resulting from a burning building, find the
probability that both the ambulance and the fire engine will be available, assuming they operate
independently.
Exercise #3

3.1 Find the errors in each of the following statements:

(a) The probabilities that an automobile salesperson will sell 0, 1, 2, or 3 cars on any given day in
February are, respectively, 0.19, 0.38, 0.29, and 0.15.
(b) The probability that it will rain tomorrow is 0.40, and the probability that it will not rain tomorrow is
0.52. 2.51
(c) The probabilities that a printer will make 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 or more mistakes in setting a document are,
respectively, 0.19,0.34,−0.25,0.43, and 0.29.
(d) On a single draw from a deck of playing cards, the probability of selecting a heart is 1/4, the
probability of selecting a black card is 1/2, and the probability of selecting both a heart and a black card is
1/8.

3.2 A box contains 500 envelopes, of which 75 contain $100 in cash, 150 contain $25, and 275 contain
$10. An envelope may be purchased for $25. What is the sample space for the different amounts of
money? Assign probabilities to the sample points and then find the probability that the first envelope
purchased contains less than $100.

3.3 If 3 books are picked at random from a shelf containing 5 novels, 3 books of poems, and a dictionary,
what is the probability that
(a) the dictionary is selected?
(b) 2 novels and 1 book of poems are selected?

3.4 A pair of fair dice is tossed. Find the probability of getting (a) a total of 8; (b) at most a total of 5.

2.59 In a poker hand consisting of 5 cards, find the probability of holding

(a) 3 aces;
(b) 4 hearts and 1 club.

3.5 A class in advanced physics is composed of 10 juniors, 30 seniors, and 10 graduate students. The
final grades show that 3 of the juniors, 10 of the seniors, and 5 of the graduate students received an A for
the course. If a student is chosen at random from this class and is found to have earned an A, what is the
probability that he or she is a senior?

2.76 In an experiment to study the relationship of hypertension and smoking habits, the following data are
collected for 180 individuals:

where H and NH in the table stand for Hypertension and Non hypertension, respectively. If one of these
individuals is selected at random, find the probability that the person is

(a) experiencing hypertension, given that the person is a heavy smoker;

(b) a nonsmoker, given that the person is experiencing no hypertension.