CONNECTING DEVICES

In this section, we divide connecting devices into five different categories based on the
layer in which they operate in a network

The five categories contain devices which can be defined as

1. Those which operate below the physical layer such as a passive hub.
2. Those which operate at the physical layer (a repeater or an active hub).
3. Those which operate at the physical and data link layers (a bridge or a two-layer switch).

4. Those which operate at the physical, data link, and network layers (a router or a three-
layer switch).
5. Those which can operate at all five layers (a gateway)

Switches

A switch is a multiport device that improves network efficiency. Switches maintain limited
routing information about nodes in the internal network, allowing connections to systems
like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are usually connected using switches. Generally,
switches read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the
appropriate destination.

There are two major types of switches:

  Modular switches allow systems to expand as needed or if network requirements
change.
 Fixed configuration switches have a set number of ports and cannot be expanded.
They are cheaper but less flexible.

Switches can be managed or unmanaged. Managed switches let users tweak settings like
LAN traffic and channel prioritization. Unmanaged switches are for basic connection and
do not allow users to control settings.

Switches improve network efficiency better than hubs or routers due to their virtual circuit
capability. Because virtual circuits are challenging to examine with network monitors,
switches also boost network security. Think of a switch as a device combining the best
capabilities of routers and hubs. A switch can work at the data link or the OSI model’s
network layer. A multilayer switch operates at both layers, meaning it can operate as a
switch and a router. A multilayer switch is a high-performance device that supports the
same routing protocols as routers.

Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards
prevent malicious traffic from halting the switch. Because of this, switch port security is
critical, meaning you must secure all switches. To do this, disable all unused ports and use
dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) snooping, address resolution protocol (ARP),
and Media Access Control (MAC) address filtering. These methods prevent unauthorized
servers and IP addresses from entering networks and help guarantee that only trusted
ports send and receive information.

Bridges

Bridges connect two or more hosts or network segments by storing or hosting frames
between them. Bridges use hardware MAC addresses for transferring frames. They can
forward or block data with the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment.
They can also connect two physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.

Bridges can be set up using two models:

 Local bridging establishes LAN connections with local cables.

 Remote bridging brings two connections together via a wide area network (WAN).

Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including connecting LAN components with
identical protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets, known as frames, for
addresses before being forwarded. As it filters frames, the bridge makes no modifications
to the formatting or content of the incoming data. Instead, the bridge filters and forwards
frames on the network with the help of a dynamic bridge table. The bridge table, which is
initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for each computer in the LAN and the
addresses of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other LANs. Bridges, like
hubs, are either simple or multiple-port.
Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years, replaced by more functional
switches. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as “multiport bridges” because of how
they operate.

Routers

The main job of a router is to direct traffic. Routers transfer packets to their destinations
by charting a path through interconnected networking devices using different network
topologies. Routers are intelligent devices that store information about their connected
networks. Most routers also operate as packet-filtering firewalls and use access control lists
(ACLs).

In conjunction with a channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU), routers also
translate from LAN framing to WAN framing. This is needed because LANs and WANs
use different network protocols. Such routers are known as border routers; they serve as
the outside connection of a LAN to a WAN and operate at the border of your network.

Routers also divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks and can be connected
internally to other routers, creating zones that operate independently. Routers establish
communication by maintaining tables about destinations and local connections. A router
contains information about the systems connected to it and where to send requests if the
destination isn’t known. Routers usually communicate routing and other information using
one of three standard protocols: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Border Gateway
Protocol (BGP) or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

Routers act as your first line of defense. You must configure them to pass only traffic
authorized by network administrators. The routers themselves are configured as static or
dynamic:

 Static routers can only be configured manually and stay that way until changed.
 Dynamic routers use information about nearby routers to build their routing tables.

Repeaters

A repeater is an electronic device that works at the physical layer of the OSI model to
amplify a received signal. It receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher
power. As a result, the signal covers longer distances, sometimes more than 100 meters for
standard LAN cables.

Repeaters are useful for anyone working in a large facility where the Wi-Fi might be spotty
in the outer reaches of the space. Large office buildings, warehouses, laboratories and
campuses are all locations that can benefit from repeaters.

Gateways
Gateways connect networks operating on different protocols so data can transfer between
destinations. These devices normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI
model. At the Transport layer and above, there are numerous protocols and standards
from different vendors, and gateways help deal with them.

Gateways translate between networking technologies such as Open System Interconnection

(OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of this,
gateways connect two or more autonomous networks, each with its own routing algorithms,
protocols, topology, domain name service, and network administration procedures and
policies. They perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router with added
translation functionality is a gateway.

Hubs

Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices, working only on the Physical layer of
the OSI. Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions. Instead, they send
data packets to all connected devices. A hub also acts as a repeater, amplifying signals that
deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A hub is the most
straightforward network connecting device because it connects LAN components with
identical protocols.

A hub can be used with digital and analog data, provided its settings are configured to
prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the incoming data is in
digital format, the hub must pass it on as packets. But if the incoming data is analog, it
passes it on in signal form.

There are two types of hubs:

 A simple hub has only one port for connecting a device to other networks.
 Multiple-port hubs allow users to connect many devices, and some expand
modularly.

There are also active and passive hubs. Active hubs boost the signal, as a repeater would,
while passive hubs have no boosting capabilities.

BACKBONE NETWORKS
Some connecting devices discussed in this chapter can be used to connect LANs in a
backbone network. A backbone network allows several LANs to be connected. In a
backbone network, no station is directly connected to the backbone; the stations are
part of a LAN, and the backbone connects the LANs. The backbone is itself a LAN
that uses a LAN protocol such as Ethernet; each connection to the backbone is itself
another LAN.
Although many different architectures can be used for a backbone, we discuss only
the two most common: the bus and the star.

Bus Backbone

In a bus backbone, the topology of the backbone is a bus. The backbone itself can use
one of the protocols that support a bus topology such as lOBase5 or lOBase2.
In a bus backbone, the topology of the backbone is a bus.
Bus backbones are normally used as a distribution backbone to connect different
buildings in an organization. Each building can comprise either a single LAN or
another backbone (normally a star backbone). A good example of a bus backbone is
one that connects single- or multiple-floor buildings on a campus. Each single-floor
building usually has a single LAN. Each multiple-floor building has a backbone (usually a
star) that connects each LAN on a floor. A bus backbone can interconnect these
LANs and backbones. Figure 15.12 shows an example of a bridge-based backbone with
four LANs

In Figure 15.12, if a station in a LAN needs to send a frame to another station in

the same LAN, the corresponding bridge blocks the frame; the frame never reaches
the backbone. However, if a station needs to send a frame to a station in another LAN, the
bridge passes the frame to the backbone, which is received by the appropriate bridge
and is delivered to the destination LAN. Each bridge connected to the backbone has a
table that shows the stations on the LAN side of the bridge. The blocking or delivery of
a frame is based on the contents of this table.
Star Backbone
In a star backbone, sometimes called a collapsed or switched backbone, the topology
of the backbone is a star. In this configuration, the backbone is just one switch (that is
why it is called, erroneously, a collapsed backbone) that connects the LANs.
In a star backbone, the topology of the backbone is a star;
the backbone is just one switch.
Figure 15.13 shows a star backbone. Note that, in this configuration, the switch
does the job of the backbone and at the same time connects the LANs

Star backbones are mostly used as a distribution backbone inside a building. In a

multifloor building, we usually find one LAN that serves each particular floor. A star
backbone connects these LANs. The backbone network, which is just a switch, can be
installed in the basement or the first floor, and separate cables can run from the switch
to each LAN. If the individual LANs have a physical star topology, either the hubs (or
switches) can be installed in a closet on the corresponding floor, or all can be installed
close to the switch. We often find a rack or chassis in the basement where the backbone
switch and all hubs or switches are installed

VIRTUAL LANs
A station is considered part of a LAN if it physically belongs to that LAN. The criterion
of membership is geographic. What happens if we need a virtual connection between
two stations belonging to two different physical LANs? We can roughly define a virtual
local area network (VLAN) as a local area network configured by software, not by
physical wiring.
Let us use an example to elaborate on this definition. Figure 15.15 shows a
switched LAN in an engineering firm in which 10 stations are grouped into three LANs
that are connected by a switch. The first four engineers work together as the first group,
the next three engineers work together as the second group, and the last three engineers
work together as the third group. The LAN is configured to allow this arrangement.
But what would happen if the administrators needed to move two engineers from
the first group to the third group, to speed up the project being done by the third group?
The LAN configuration would need to be changed. The network technician must
rewire. The problem is repeated if, in another week, the two engineers move back to
their previous group. In a switched LAN, changes in the work group mean physical
changes in the network configuration.

Figure 15.16 shows the same switched LAN divided into VLANs. The whole idea
of VLAN technology is to divide a LAN into logical, instead of physical, segments. A
LAN can be divided into several logical LANs called VLANs. Each VLAN is a work
group in the organization. If a person moves from one group to another, there is no need
to change the physical configuration. The group membership in VLANs is defined by
software, not hardware. Any station can be logically moved to another VLAN. All members
belonging to a VLAN can receive broadcast messages sent to that particular VLAN.

This means if a station moves from VLAN 1 to VLAN 2, it receives broadcast messages
sent to VLAN 2, but no longer receives broadcast messages sent to VLAN 1.
It is obvious that the problem in our previous example can easily be solved by
using VLANs. Moving engineers from one group to another through software is easier
than changing the configuration of the physical network.
VLAN technology even allows the grouping of stations connected to different
switches in a VLAN. Figure 15.17 shows a backbone local area network with two
switches and three VLANs. Stations from switches A and B belong to each VLAN.

Cellular Telephony
• Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile phones, personal
communication systems, wireless networking etc.
• The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high power
transmitter/receiver systems. Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and
more transmitters for data transmission.
Features of Cellular Systems-
• Wireless Cellular Systems solves the problem of spectral congestion and increases user
capacity. The features of cellular systems are as follows −
• Offer very high capacity in a limited spectrum.
 • Reuse of radio channel in different cells.
• Enable a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of users by
reusing the channel throughout the coverage region.
• Communication is always between mobile and base station (not directly between
mobiles).
• Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within a small
geographic area called a cell.
• Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
• By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the channel groups
may be reused to cover different cells.
• Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
• Frequency reuse or frequency planning.
• Organization of Wireless Cellular Network
Advantages of Cellular Networks-
• Mobile and fixed users can connect using it. Voice and data services also provided.
• Has increased capacity & easy to maintain.
• Easy to upgrade the equipment & has consumes less power.
• It is used in place where cables can not be laid out because of its wireless existence.
• To use the features & functions of mainly all private and public networks.
• Can be distributed to the larger coverage of areas.
Disadvantages of Cellular Networks-
• It provides a lower data rate than wired networks like fiber optics and DSL. The data
rate changes depending on wireless technologies like GSM, CDMA, LTE, etc.
• Macrophage cells are impacted by multipath signal loss.
• To service customers, there is a limited capacity that depends on the channels and
different access techniques.
• Due to the wireless nature of the connection, security issues exist.
• For the construction of antennas for cellular networks, a foundation tower and space
are required. It takes a lot of time and labor to do this.
Satellite NETWORK-
• A satellite is an object that revolves around another object. For example, earth is a
satellite of The Sun, and moon is a satellite of earth.
• A communication satellite is a microwave repeater station in a space that is used for
telecommunication, radio and television signals. A communication satellite processes
the data coming from one earth station and it converts the data into another form and
send it to the second earth station

How a Satellite Works??

• Two stations on earth want to communicate through radio broadcast but are too far
away to use conventional means. The two stations can use a relay station for their
communication. One earth station transmits the signal to the satellite.
• Uplink frequency is the frequency at which ground station is communicating with
satellite. The satellite transponder converts the signal and sends it down to the second
earth station, and this is called Downlink frequency. The second earth station also
communicates with the first one in the same way.
Satellite Communication Basics-
• The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station. Here an installation
is designed to transmit and receive signals from a satellite in orbit around the earth.
Earth stations send information to satellites in the form of high powered, high
frequency (GHz range) signals.
• The satellites receive and retransmit the signals back to earth where they are received
by other earth stations in the coverage area of the satellite. Satellite's footprint is the
area which receives a signal of useful strength from the satellite.

• The transmission system from the earth station to the satellite through a channel is
called the uplink. The system from the satellite to the earth station through the
channel is called the downlink

Advantages of Satellite-
• The advantages of Satellite Communications are as follows −
• The Coverage area is very high than that of terrestrial systems.
 • The transmission cost is independent of the coverage area.
• Higher bandwidths are possible.
Disadvantages of Satellite-
• The disadvantages of Satellite Communications are as follows −
• Launching satellites into orbits is a costly process.
• The bandwidths are gradually used up.
• High propagation delay for satellite systems than the conventional terrestrial systems

SONET-
• SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a communication protocol,
developed by Bellcore – that is used to transmit a large amount of data over relatively
large distances using optical fibre. With SONET, multiple digital data streams are
transferred at the same time over the optical fibre.
• Key Points:
• Developed by Bellcore
• Used in North America
• Standardized by ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
• Similar to SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) which is used in Europe and Japan.

Why is SONET referred to as a synchronised network?

• Across the entire network, the timing of signal and equipment transmission is
controlled by a single clock (the Primary Reference Clock, or PRC
SONET Network Elements-
 •
STS Multiplexer:
• Performs multiplexing of signals
• Converts electrical signal to optical signal
• STS Demultiplexer:
• Performs demultiplexing of signals
• Converts optical signal to electrical signal
• Regenerator:
It is a repeater, that takes an optical signal and regenerates (increases the strength) it.
• Add/Drop Multiplexer:
It allows to add signals coming from different sources into a given path or remove a signal
Why SONET is used?
•
SONET is used to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal so that it can travel
longer distances.

SONET Connections:
• Section: Portion of network connecting two neighbouring devices.
• Line: Portion of network connecting two neighbouring multiplexers.
• Path: End-to-end portion of the network
Layers of SONET:
 • SONET includes four functional layers:
• Path Layer:
• It is responsible for the movement of signals from its optical source to its
optical destination.
• STS Mux/Demux provides path layer functions.
• Line Layer:
• It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical line.
• STS Mux/Demux and Add/Drop Mux provides Line layer functions.
• Section Layer:
• It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical section.
• Each device of network provides section layer functions.
• Photonic Layer:
• It corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model.
• It includes physical specifications for the optical fibre channel (presence of light
= 1 and absence of light = 0)
Benefits of SONET-
• transmits information over long distances
• very little electromagnetic interference
• greater data rates
• Broad Bandwidth
• SONET's drawbacks include:
• No standard that is compatible.
• SONET mux services are necessary for tributary services.
• Low cost and efficient for few channels.
• The SONET/SDH network management system is inadequate for managing and using
the DWDM technique.
• At higher capacities, bandwidth efficiency is a problem.
• There must be more overhead.

Virtual Tributaries-
• The STS SPE can be subdivided into smaller structures, known as virtual tributaries
(VTs). VTs are used for transporting and switching payloads smaller than the STS-1
rate.
• All services below the DS3, such as DS1 signals, are transported in the VT structure.
The various sub-DS3 TDM payloads that can be carried over VTs are shown in Table 5-
6. An individual VT containing a DS1 can be added or dropped without multiplexing or
demultiplexing the entire STS-1.
• This improved accessibility improves switching and grooming at VT or STS levels. The
STS-1 payload can be subdivided into VTs that are synchronous signals used to
transport lower-speed transmissions.

Virtual Circuit in Computer Network-

• Virtual Circuit is the computer network providing connection-oriented service. It is a
connection-oriented network. In virtual circuit resource are reserve for the time
interval of data transmission between two nodes. This network is a highly reliable
medium of transfer. Virtual circuits are costly to implement
Working of Virtual Circuit:
• In the first step a medium is set up between the two end nodes.
• Resources are reserved for the transmission of packets.
• Then a signal is sent to sender to tell the medium is set up and transmission can be
started.
 • It ensures the transmission of all packets.
• A global header is used in the first packet of the connection.
• Whenever data is to be transmitted a new connection is set up.
Congestion Control in Virtual Circuit:
Once the congestion is detected in virtual circuit network, closed-loop techniques is used.
There are different approaches in this technique
• No new connection –
No new connections are established when the congestion is detected.
• This approach is used in telephone networks where no new calls are established
when the exchange is overloaded.
• Participation of congested router invalid –
Another approach to control congestion is allow all new connections but
• route these new connections in such a way that congested router is not part of this
route.
• Negotiation –
To negotiate different parameters between sender and receiver of the network,
• when the connection is established. During the set up time,
• host specifies the shape and volume of the traffic, quality of service and other
parameters
• Advantages of Virtual Circuit:
• Packets are delivered to the receiver in the same order sent by the sender.
• Virtual circuit is a reliable network circuit.
• There is no need for overhead in each packet.
• Single global packet overhead is used in virtual circuit.
• Disadvantages of Virtual Circuit:
• Virtual circuit is costly to implement.
• It provides only connection-oriented service.
• Always a new connection set up is required for transmission.
Frame Relay
• Frame Relay is a packet-switching network protocol that is designed to work at the
data link layer of the network. It is used to connect Local Area Networks (LANs) and
transmit data across Wide Area Networks (WANs).
• It is a better alternative to a point-to-point network for connecting multiple nodes
that require separate dedicated links to be established between each pair of nodes.
• It allows transmission of different size packets and dynamic bandwidth allocation.
Also, it provides a congestion control mechanism to reduce the network overheads
due to congestion. It does not have an error control and flow management
mechanism.

• Working:
• Frame relay switches set up virtual circuits to connect multiple LANs to build a WAN.
Frame relay transfers data between LANs across WAN by dividing the data in packets
known as frames and transmitting these packets across the network. It supports
communication with multiple LANs over the shared physical links or private lines
• Types:
• Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) –
These are the permanent connections between frame relay nodes that exist for long
durations. They are always available for communication even if they are not in use.
These connections are static and do not change with time.
 • Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC) –
These are the temporary connections between frame relay nodes that exist for the
duration for which nodes are communicating with each other and are closed/
discarded after the communication. These connections are dynamically established as
per the requirements.
• Advantages:
• High speed
• Scalable
• Reduced network congestion
• Cost-efficient
• Secured connection
• Disadvantages:
• Lacks error control mechanism
• Delay in packet transfer
• Less reliable

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) in Computer Network-

• Why ATM networks?

• Driven by the integration of services and performance requirements of both

telephony and data networking: “broadband integrated service vision” (B-ISON).

• Telephone networks support a single quality of service and are expensive to boot.

• Internet supports no quality of service but is flexible and cheap.

• ATM networks were meant to support a range of service qualities at a reasonable

cost- intended to subsume both the telephone network and the Internet.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM):

•
It is an International Telecommunication Union- Telecommunications Standards
Section (ITU-T) efficient for call relay and it transmits all information including
 multiple service types such as data, video, or voice which is conveyed in small fixed-
size packets called cells. Cells are transmitted asynchronously and the network is
connection-oriented.
• ATM is a technology that has some event in the development of broadband ISDN in
the 1970s and 1980s, which can be considered an evolution of packet switching. Each
cell is 53 bytes long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload. Making an ATM call
requires first sending a message to set up a connection.
• Subsequently, all cells follow the same path to the destination. It can handle both
constant rate traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus it can carry multiple types of traffic
with end-to-end quality of service. ATM is independent of a transmission medium,
they may be sent on a wire or fiber by themselves or they may also be packaged inside
the payload of other carrier systems. ATM networks use “Packet” or “cell” Switching
with virtual circuits. Its design helps in the implementation of high-performance
multimedia networking
ATM Cell Format-
• In Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), the data are transmitted through a fixed-size
unit called cells. As we know, each cell has 53 bytes long. There are two types of
Asynchronous transfer modes (ATM). These are as follows:
• 1. UNI header
• This is used in the private connection in the Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
network between ATM switches and ATM endpoints.
• 2. NNI header
• It communicates between the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) switches
Working of ATM:
•
ATM standard uses two types of connections. i.e., Virtual path connections (VPCs)
which consist of Virtual channel connections (VCCs) bundled together which is a basic
unit carrying a single stream of cells from user to user. A virtual path can be created
end-to-end across an ATM network, as it does not rout the cells to a particular virtual
circuit. In case of major failure, all cells belonging to a particular virtual path are
routed the same way through the ATM network, thus helping in faster recovery.
• Switches connected to subscribers use both VPIs and VCIs to switch the cells which are
Virtual Path and Virtual Connection switches that can have different virtual channel
connections between them, serving the purpose of creating a virtual trunk between
the switches which can be handled as a single entity. Its basic operation is
 straightforward by looking up the connection value in the local translation table
determining the outgoing port of the connection and the new VPI/VCI value of
connection on that link.

ATM Applications:
• ATM WANs –
It can be used as a WAN to send cells over long distances, a router serving as an end-
point between ATM network and other networks, which has two stacks of the
protocol.

• Multimedia virtual private networks and managed services –

It helps in managing ATM, LAN, voice, and video services and is capable of full-service
virtual private networking, which includes integrated access to multimedia.

• Frame relay backbone –

Frame relay services are used as a networking infrastructure for a range of data
services and enabling frame-relay ATM service to Internetworking services.

• Residential broadband networks –

ATM is by choice provides the networking infrastructure for the establishment of
residential broadband services in the search of highly scalable solutions.

• Carrier infrastructure for telephone and private line networks –

To make more effective use of SONET/SDH fiber infrastructures by building the ATM
infrastructure for carrying the telephonic and private-line traffic.