ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE

PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Vansh for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square

1. Motion, Forces and Energy centimetre (1 cm²).
<b>Area formula</b>: area = length × breadth.
SI unit of area: square metre (m²), which is the area of a
1.1. Physical Quantities and square with sides 1 m long.
Measurement Techniques
<b>Volume</b>
<b>Units and basic quantities</b>

A standard or unit must be chosen before a

measurement can be made.
The size of the quantity to be measured is found using
an instrument with a scale marked in the unit
Three basic quantities are measured in physics:
<b>length, mass, and time.</b>
Units for other quantities are based on length, mass, and
time.
The <b>SI (Système International d’Unités) system</b> is
a set of units used in many countries

<b>Length</b>
Volume is the amount of space occupied.
Unit of length: metre (m)
<b>Unit of volume</b>: cubic metre (m³).
1 decimetre (dm) = 10⁻¹ m Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (cm³).
1 centimetre (cm) = 10⁻² m Volume of a cylinder: $V = \pi r^2 h$
1 millimetre (mm) = 10⁻³ m A measuring cylinder can measure the volume of a
1 micrometre (μm) = 10⁻⁶ m liquid. Ensure the cylinder is upright and the eye is at
1 nanometre (nm) = 10⁻⁹ m bottom level of the meniscus.

Multiples for large distances: <b>Time</b>

1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m Unit of time: second (s).

1 gigametre (Gm) = 10⁹ m Time-measuring devices use oscillations.
Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter Choose a timer that is precise enough for the task (e.g., a
rule stopwatch for the pendulum period or a millisecond
timer for measuring the speed of sound).
<b>For any length less than a meter, we use a tape
measure</b> <b>Scalars and Vectors</b>

<b>Scalar quantity</b>: has magnitude (size) only.

Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy,
temperature.
<b>Vector quantity</b>: described by both magnitude
and direction.
Examples: force, gravitational field strength, electric field
strength, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum.
<b>Representing Vectors</b>: a straight line with length
indicating the magnitude and an arrow showing
direction.
Adding scalars: ordinary arithmetic.
Adding vectors: geometrically, considering both
<i>Note: Take ± readings for accuracy</i> magnitude and direction.
<b>Area</b>
<b>For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles:</b>

The magnitude of the resultant

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$$F =\sqrt{F_X^2 + F_Y^2}$$

<b>Angle θ between FX and F</b> At rest ( BC).

Constant speed (AB and CD)
$$\tan \theta = \frac{F_Y}{F_X}$$
Speed is higher when the gradient is steeper. For
example, the speed of the train at CD is 2m/s, but that at
AB is 1m/s. It is higher in CD, which can be seen as CD
being steeper.

<b>Non-Constant Speed</b>

When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time

graph varies.
Upward curve of increasing gradient: accelerating.
The upward curve of decreasing gradient: decelerating.
Example:

Gradient of the tangent at T:

$$\frac{AB}{BC} = \frac{40 \text{m}}{2 \text{s}} = 20
1.2. Motion \text{m/s}$$

<b>Distance and displacement</b>

<b>Speed</b>

Speed is the distance travelled by a body in unit time.

Distance is a length a body travels between two points. It
When the distance travelled is (s) over a short time
is a scalar quantity.
period (t), the speed (v) is given by:
Displacement is similar to distance but as it is a vector
quantity, direction is also considered. $$v = \frac{s}{t}$$

<b>Distance-Time Graph Examples</b> Key definition: Speed is the distance travelled per unit
time.
General formula:

$$\text{Average speed} = \frac{\text{Total distance

travelled}}{\text{Total time taken}}$$

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Example: If a car travels 300 km in five hours, its average Example: If a car starts from rest and reaches a
speed is: $\text{Average speed} = \frac{300 \text{ km}}{5 velocity of 2 m/s after 1 second, its acceleration is $2
\text{ h}} = 60 \text{ km/h}$ \text{m/s}^2 , \text{due north}$
Key definition: Acceleration is the change in velocity per
<b>Velocity</b> unit time.
Example: For a steady increase of velocity from 20 m/s to
Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given
50 m/s in 5 seconds: $\text{Acceleration} = \frac{(50 - 20)
direction. Ie. Velocity = Speed given in a specific direction.
, \text{m/s}}{5 \text{s}} = 6 \text{m/s}^2$
Speed is the distance travelled in unit time.
Acceleration is a vector, and its magnitude and direction
Example: If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, they
should be stated.
have the same speed and velocity due north. If one
For motion in a straight line, the magnitude of the
travels north and the other south, their speeds are the
velocity equals the speed, and the magnitude of the
same, but not their velocities.
acceleration equals the speed change in unit time.
<b>Key definition:</b> Velocity is the change in
Example: A car accelerating on a straight road with the
displacement per unit of time.
following speeds:
Velocity formula:
The speed increases by 5 m/s every second, and the
${\text{Velocity }=\frac{\text{Distance moved in a
acceleration is constant at 5 m/s².
given direction}}{\text{Time taken} }}=
Acceleration is positive if the velocity <b>increases.</b>
\frac{Displacement} {Time}$
Acceleration is negative if the velocity <b>decreases</b>
Velocity is the speed in a given direction.
(also called deceleration or retardation).
A body's velocity is uniform or constant if it moves at a
steady speed in a straight line. <b>Speed-Time Graphs</b>
Velocity is not uniform if the body moves in a curved
path. Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against
Speed and velocity units are the same: <b>km/h, m/s. time.
</b> Used to solve motion problems.

Note: Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector <b>Constant Speed</b>

quantity. Displacement is a vector, unlike distance which
is a scalar Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving
<b>Acceleration</b> with a constant speed of 25 m/s.

When the velocity of an object changes, the object A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates
accelerates. constant speed.
<b>Acceleration</b> is defined as the <b>change of
velocity in unit time:</b>

$$\text{Acceleration} = \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t}$$

| Time (s) | Speed (m/s) | | -------- | ----------- | | 0 | 0 | | 1 | 5
| | 2 | 10 | | 3 | 15 | | 4 | 20 | | 5 | 25 | | 6 | 30 |

<b>Constant Acceleration</b>

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Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each

second, indicating decreasing acceleration.

<b>Using Gradient to Calculate Acceleration</b>

The gradient of a speed-time graph represents the

acceleration.
For constant speed, the gradient is zero, indicating zero
acceleration.
For constant acceleration, the gradient is given by: \n
$\text{Gradient} = \frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x} = \frac{Y<i>2-
Y</i>1}{X<i>2- X</i>1}$
For changing acceleration, the gradient changes,
The linear shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant indicating changing acceleration.
acceleration. An object accelerates if the speed increases and
The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating decelerates if the speed decreases with time.
constant acceleration.
<b>Area Under a Speed-Time Graph</b>
<b>Variable Acceleration</b>
<b>Example 1: The figure shows acceleration from rest,
constant speed, and deceleration.</b>

Measures the distance travelled.

The rule applies even if acceleration is not constant.
The distance equals the shaded area under the graph.
<b>Example 2: The figure shows changing acceleration with
a curved shape.</b> <b>Equations for constant acceleration</b>

<b>First Equation</b>
If an object is moving with constant acceleration ( a )
in a straight line and its speed increases from ( u ) to (
v ) in time ( t ):
Acceleration is given by:

$$a = \frac{v - u}{t}$$

Rearranging gives:

$$v = u + at \quad \text{(Equation 1)}$$

<b>Second Equation</b>
For an object moving with constant acceleration, its
average speed equals half the sum of its initial and
final speeds:

$$\text{Average speed} = \frac{u + v}{2}$$

If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then:

$$\text{Average speed} = \frac{s}{t}$$

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Combining these, we get When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at
a terminal velocity.
$$\frac{s}{t} = \frac{u + v}{2}$$ Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape,
and weight.
Rearranging gives:
A small, dense object has a high terminal velocity and
$$s = \frac{(u + v)}{2} \cdot t \quad \text{(Equation 2)}$$ accelerates for a longer distance.
<b>Air Resistance and Free Fall</b> A light object or one with a large surface area, like a
raindrop or parachute, has a low terminal velocity and
In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper accelerates over a shorter distance.
due to air resistance. Following is the velocity-time graph for a falling
In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate. parachutist:
Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies
compared to heavy bodies. <b>Explanation:</b>
Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low
<b>Initial Phase:</b> When the parachutist jumps out of
speeds.
the plane, they experience free fall. During this phase,
<b>Acceleration of Free Fall</b> their velocity increases steadily due to the acceleration of
gravity (approximately $9.8 \text{m/s}^2$ acting
All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate downwards. The graph slopes upwards steeply.
uniformly if air resistance is negligible. <b>Slowing down of Parachute:</b> Air resistance
This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of increases significantly when the parachutist deploys their
free fall, denoted by ( g ). parachute. This causes a decrease in acceleration,
The value of (g) varies slightly but is about 9.8 m/s² on leading to a less steep slope on the graph. The
average. parachutist’s velocity continues to increase but at a
The velocity of a free-falling body increases by about slower rate compared to free fall.
9.8m/s every second. <b>Terminal Velocity:</b> As the parachutist continues
to fall, their velocity eventually reaches a maximum
<b>A ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates
constant value known as terminal velocity. At terminal
by about 9.8 m/s every second, reaching its highest point
velocity, the forces of gravity and air resistance (drag)
after 3 seconds.</b>
balance out, resulting in zero net acceleration. On the
As an object falls, air resistance increases, reducing its
velocity-time graph, this appears as a horizontal line
acceleration.
where the velocity remains constant.

1.3. Mass and Weight

Mass

The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of

matter in it. It is a measure of the quantity of matter in
an object at rest relative to an observer.
The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), with the
gram (g) being one-thousandth of a kilogram: $1 \text{g}
= 10^{-3} \text{kg} = 0.001 \text{kg}$
Mass is different from weight, which is a gravitational
force on an object with mass.

Weight

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Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that

has mass.
The weight of an object can vary with location due to
differences in gravitational field strength.
The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured
in newtons and can be determined using a spring
balance.

| Aspect | Mass | Weight | |----|----|----| | Definition |

Measure of the amount of matter in an object |
Gravitational force acting on an object with mass | | Units |
Kilogram (kg), gram (g) | Newton (N) | | Measurement | This
can be measured using a balance | Measured using a spring
balance or scale | | Dependency | Independent of location Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout.
and gravitational field | Depends on location and Immerse the object in the water and find the volume of
water displaced. That volume of water is the volume of
gravitational field strength | | Symbol in Equations | $m$ |
$( W ), or ,( F_g )$ | the object.
Gravitational Field

Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in

contact with the Earth to fall towards it.
Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass
and is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction.
On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2,
representing both the acceleration due to gravity and the
gravitational field strength.

1.4. Density
Definition
Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container,
Density $ (\rho $) is the measure of mass per unit add liquid, measure total mass, and subtract to find the
volume mass of the liquid. Divide by the known volume to find
density.
$\rho = \frac{m}{V}$
Air: Measure the mass of a flask filled with air, then
Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic remove the air with a vacuum pump. Calculate air
meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³). density by dividing the mass difference by volume
measured using water displacement.
Calculation Methods
Example Calculations
Regular Shape: Measure mass $(m)$ using a balance,
and measure volume ($V $) by direct measurement of Example 1: Calculate the density of copper given a mass
dimensions. of 63 g and a volume of 7 cm³ $\rho = \frac{m}{V} =
Irregular Shape: Measure mass $(m)$ using a balance. \frac{63 \text{ g}}{7 \text{ cm}³} = 9 \text{ g/cm}³$
Measure volume $(V)$ using displacement methods: Example 2: Determine the mass of an aluminium sheet
with a volume of 73 cm³ and a density of 2.7 g/cm³
Method 1: Immerse the object in a measuring cylinder filled $m = \rho \times V = 2.7 \text{ g/cm}³ \times 73 \text{
with water, record the initial and final water levels to find cm}³ = 197.1 \text{ g}$
volume.
Floating and Sinking:

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Objects float or sink in liquids based on their density Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by
relative to the liquid's density. A higher-density object arrows in diagrams.
sinks in a lower-density liquid and vice versa. Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g.
weight and support force) or have a resultant force.
1.5. Forces The resultant force is the single force that has the same
effect as all forces acting together.
Force A resultant force can change the velocity of an object by
altering its speed or direction of motion.
A force is a push or a pull that can change the motion,
speed, or shape of an object.
It can cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction
of moving objects.

Extension in Springs

Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is

proportional to the stretching force up to the limit of
proportionality.
Symbolically, $\text{extension} \propto \text{stretching
force}$
Newton’s First Law
Spring Constant
An object remains at rest or continues to move at a
The spring constant $(k)$ measures the force needed to
constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a
cause a unit extension in a spring.
resultant force.
$k = \frac{F}{x}$, where $(F)$ is the force applied and
This means that no force is required to maintain
$(x)$ is the resulting extension.
constant velocity if no external forces act on the object.
Load-Extension Graphs

Used to graphically represent the relationship between

applied force (load) and resulting extension in materials
like springs.
Non-linear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality
indicate permanent deformation.

Friction and Air Resistance

Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to

slow down and eventually come to rest.
In their absence, objects would continue moving
indefinitely with constant speed.

Newton’s Second Law

States that the acceleration of an object is directly

proportional to the force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass.
Mathematically expressed as:
Forces and Resultants $F = ma $
where ($F $) is the resultant force in newtons ($N$), ($m
$) is the mass in kilograms ($kg$), and ($a$) is the
acceleration in meters per second squared $(m/s^2)$.

Proportional Relationships

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Acceleration ($a$) is directly proportional to the force

($F$) when mass ($m$) is constant
$a \propto F$
Acceleration ($a$) is inversely proportional to mass $(m$)
when force ($F$ ) is constant
$a \propto \frac{1}{m}$

Units and Constant $(k$)

The unit of force, the newton ($N$), is defined as the

force that gives a 1 kg mass an acceleration of $1m/s^2$
$k$ in $F = kma$ equals 1 when $m = 1 kg$ and a = 1
$m/s^2$
Acceleration in Circular Motion
Resultant Force and Motion
Despite constant speed, circular motion involves
Resultant force ($F$ ) causes an object to accelerate in acceleration because velocity direction changes
the direction of the force. continuously.
When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary
changes in shape may occur due to internal forces within to maintain circular motion.
the object.
Factors Affecting Centripetal Force
Friction Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following:

Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one Speed $(v)$: Increasing speed increases centripetal
surface over another. force.
It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can Radius $(r)$: Decreasing radius increases centripetal
prevent proper movement on surfaces like ice. force.
Mass $(m)$: Increasing mass increases centripetal force.
Types of Friction
Role of Centripetal Force
Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the
starting of motion between surfaces in contact. It ensures the object maintains a constant distance from
Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the the centre of the circle.
motion of surfaces sliding past each other.
Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an Moment of a Force
object moving through a fluid (air or liquid), increasing
The turning effect of a force around a pivot point is called
with speed and reducing acceleration.
the moment of the force.
Effect of Force and Mass on Friction It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of
Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases action of the force.
friction initially. Mathematically, the moment is given by:
Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, $M = F \times d$
causing a rise in temperature when contacting surfaces. where $d$ is the perpendicular distance from the pivot
to the line of action of the force.
The unit of moment is the Newton metre $(Nm)$.

Centripetal Force

In a circular motion, an object moves in a curved path

due to a force directed towards the centre of the circle.

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Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium

To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of

Stability and Toppling
moments (or law of moments) is used.
The law states that for a beam in equilibrium, the sum of The stability of an object depends on the position of its
clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of centre of gravity relative to its base.
anticlockwise moments about the same point. An object is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its
This principle is essential for designing and base of support.
understanding the equilibrium of lever systems and Toppling occurs when the vertical line through the centre
other balanced structures. of gravity falls outside the base of support.
Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of
Conditions for Equilibrium
gravity improves stability.
An object is in equilibrium if:
Types of Equilibrium
The sum of all forces acting on it equals zero (static
equilibrium). Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original
The sum of all moments (clockwise and anticlockwise) position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ball in a bowl).
around any point is zero (rotational equilibrium). Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away
from its original position when displaced slightly (e.g., a
Centre of Gravity
ruler balanced on its edge).
The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new
the point through which the entire weight of the object position when displaced (e.g., a ball sitting on a flat
acts. surface).
It behaves as if all the mass were concentrated at this
single point.
For a uniform object, such as a ruler, the centre of gravity
is at its geometric centre.

Determining the Centre of Gravity

Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped

lamina involves suspending the object from different
points and using a plumb line to mark the vertical line Momentum
through which it hangs. The centre of gravity is where
these lines intersect. Momentum ($p%=$) is the product of an object's mass
($m$) and its velocity ($v$).
Mathematically, $p = mv$
It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude
and direction.
The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second
$(kgm/s)$ or newton second $(Ns)$.

Conservation of Momentum

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The total momentum of a closed system of objects Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of
remains constant if no external forces act on it (such as substances like food, fuels (oil, gas, coal, wood).
friction or air resistance). Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object
This principle is known as the conservation of possesses due to its position relative to a reference point
momentum. (usually the Earth's surface).
Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and Elastic Strain Energy: Energy stored in an object when it
inelastic) and explosions. For example, in a collision, the is compressed, stretched, or deformed.
total momentum before and after the collision remains Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a moving object.
the same. Electrostatic Energy: Energy stored in charged objects
$$ p_{\text{initial}}=p_{\text{final}} $$ due to their separation in an electric field.
Example: Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an
A trolley of mass $m_1 = 3$ kg moving with velocity $u_1 atom..
= 5$ m/s collides and couples with a stationary trolley of Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the
mass $m_2 = 2$ kg. They move off together with the microscopic motions and interactions of particles within
same velocity $(v).$ We need to find $(v)$. a substance.
1. Calculate initial momentum $(
p_{\text{initial}})$: Energy Transfers
$p_{\text{initial}} = m_1 \cdot u_1 = 3 \text{ kg}
Mechanical Working: Transfer of energy by the action
\cdot 5 \text{ m/s} = 15 \text{ kgm/s}$
of a force, like lifting a weight.
2. Calculate final momentum ($p_{\text{final}})$:
Electrical Working: Transfer of energy by an electric
Since they move off together with velocity $(v)$:
current, such as in batteries or electric motors.
$p_{\text{final}} = (m_1 + m_2) \cdot v = (3 \text{
Waves (Electromagnetic and Sound): Transfer of
kg} + 2 \text{ kg}) \cdot v = 5 \text{ kg} \cdot v$
energy through waves, like light or sound waves.
3. Apply conservation of momentum
Heating: Transfer of energy through thermal processes,
$(p_{\text{initial}} = p_{\text{final}})$:
like heating water in a boiler.
$15 \text{ kgm/s} = 5 \text{ kg} \cdot v$
4. Solve for $(v)$: Principle of Conservation of Energy
$v = \frac{15 \text{ kgm/s}}{5 \text{ kg}} = 3 \text{
m/s}$ Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
So, the velocity $(v $) of the two trolleys moving together transformed from one form to another. Thus the total
after the collision is $\boxed{3 \text{ m/s}}$ amount of energy is constant.

Impulse Energy Forms

Impulse ($ J$) is the change in momentum $( \Delta p) $ Kinetic Energy $(E_k)$: Energy possessed by an object
of an object when a force acts on it over a period of time due to its motion.
$( \Delta t )$. $E_k = \frac{1}{2} mv^2$, where $(m)$ is mass and $(
Mathematically, $ J = F \Delta t = \Delta p $ v )$ is velocity.
Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the same Example Calculation: For a football of mass 0.4 kg
direction as the force causing it. moving at 20 m/s:
$E_k = \frac{1}{2} \times 0.4 \times (20)^2 = 80 \text{
Force and Momentum: J}$
Potential Energy $(E_p)$:Energy an object has due to its
Relation of force to the rate of change of momentum:
position or condition or configuration.
$( F = \frac{\Delta p}{\Delta t} )$, which is an
$E_p = mgh$ , where $ (m)$ is mass, ($g $) is
alternative form of Newton's second law.
acceleration due to gravity, and ($h$) is height.
Example Calculation: For a 0.1 kg mass raised vertically
1.6. Energy, work and power by 1 m:
$E_p = 0.1 \times 9.8 \times 1 = 0.98 \text{ J}$
Types of energy stores
Work

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| Energy Type | Renewable or Non-renewable | Advantages

Work ($W$) is done when a force ($F$) displaces a body | Disadvantages | |----|----|----|----| | Fossil Fuels | Non-
through a distance ($d$) in the direction of the force. renewable | High energy density, readily available during
Formula: $W = F \cdot d$ peak demand. | Limited supply, environmental pollution
Unit: The unit of work is the joule (J), where $1 \text{ J} = (CO2, SO2), finite resource. | | Nuclear Fuels | Non-
1 \text{ N} \cdot \text{m}$ renewable | High energy output, low CO2 emissions. |
Radioactive waste disposal issues, potential for accidents
(e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima). | | Solar Energy | Renewable |
Abundant, no emissions during operation, diverse
applications. | Intermittent availability, high initial costs for
large-scale installations. | | Wind Energy | Renewable |
Clean energy source, abundant in suitable locations. | Visual
and noise impacts, intermittent nature of wind. | | Wave
Energy | Renewable | Renewable, predictable in coastal
areas with consistent waves. | Technologically challenging,
potential environmental impacts. | | Tidal Energy |
Example Calculation Renewable | Predictable and consistent, minimal
greenhouse gas emissions. | High infrastructure costs,
If a force of 50 N is used to move a crate 3 m environmental impacts on marine ecosystems. | |
horizontally:
Hydroelectric Energy | Renewable | Reliable, long
$W = 50 \text{ N} \times 3 \text{ m} = 150 \text{ J}$
operational life, minimal greenhouse gas emissions. |
If lifting a mass of 3 kg vertically by 2 m (where g Disruption of aquatic ecosystems, potential displacement of
$\approx 10 \text{ m/s}^2$): communities, limited suitable sites. | | Geothermal Energy |
$W = 30 \text{ N} \times 2 \text{ m} = 60 \text{ J}$
Renewable | Reliable, low emissions, constant energy
source. | Limited to geologically active areas, high upfront
Energy resources
costs for exploration and drilling. | | Biofuels | Renewable |
Renewable, lower emissions compared to fossil fuels. |
Competition with food production, land use issues, varying
energy content. |
How Fossil Fuels are used in Power Stations

Coal: In coal-fired power stations, coal is burned in a

boiler to produce heat.
Natural Gas: In gas-fired power stations, natural gas is
burned directly in a gas turbine.
The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to
boil water, creating high-pressure steam.
The steam drives turbines connected to electrical
generators.
Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor)
mounted on a shaft, which rotates when steam is
directed onto them.
As steam expands through the turbine, its energy is
transferred to the rotor, causing it to spin.
The spinning rotor generates electricity through
electromagnetic induction in the generator.

How hydroelectric power stations work

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

$\text{Efficiency (%)} = \left( \frac{\text{Useful Power

They run using the kinetic energy generated from the Output}}{\text{Total Power Input}} \right) \times 100%$
flow of water moving downstream. Example a: Electric Motor
This kinetic energy spin turbines which are connected to
generators. Given:
These generators then produce electricity that can be
used by households. Energy input = 400 J
Work done on load = 300 J
How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power Stations Calculate Efficiency:
$\text{Efficiency} = \left( \frac{300 \text{ J}}{400 \text{ J}}
Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear fission \right) \times 100$ = 75%
reactions with uranium to generate heat. Example b: Electric Drill
This heat is used to produce steam indirectly through a
heat exchanger. Given:
The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines
connected to generators to produce electricity. Power input to drill = 300 J/s
The operation involves the steam passing through a Useful power output (excluding thermal losses) = 200 J/s
turbine's fixed blades (stator) onto the rotating blades
Calculate Efficiency:
(rotor), where the expansion of steam energy is
converted into rotational motion. $\text{Efficiency} = \left( \frac{200 \text{ J/s}}{300 \text{ J/s}}
The rotational motion of the rotor then drives the \right) \times 100% = \frac{2}{3} \times 100$ = 66.67%
electrical generator, producing electricity for Sankey Diagrams
consumption.
Sankey diagrams are used to represent energy transfers
Power and efficiencies visually.
They show how input energy is divided into useful output
The power of a device is the work it does per second, or
energy and wasted energy.
the rate at which it does work.
The width of the arrows in a Sankey diagram is
Power also represents the rate at which energy is
proportional to the amount of energy they represent.
transferred from one store to another.
A wide arrow represents a large amount of energy, while
Formula:
a narrow arrow represents a small amount.
$\text{power} = \frac{\text{work done}}{\text{time
taken}}$
$P =$ $\frac{W}{t}$ where $W$ is the work done in
time $t$
$P =$ $\frac{\Delta E}{t}$ where $\Delta E$ is the
energy transferred in time $t$
Key definition: Power is the work done per unit time
and the energy transferred per unit time.
Unit of power: watt $(W)$, where 1 $W$ = 1 $J/s$
Larger units:
1 $kW$ = 1000 $W$ = $10^3$ $W$
1 $MW$ = 1,000,000 $W$ = $10^6$ $W$
Example: If a machine does 500 $J$ of work in 10 $s$, its
power is:
$\frac{500 \text{J}}{10 \text{s}} = 50 {W}$
1.7. Pressure
Efficiency
Pressure is the force per unit area.
% Efficiency formula for energy Formula:
$\text{pressure} = \frac{\text{force}}{\text{area}}$
$\text{Efficiency (%)} = \left( \frac{\text{Useful Energy Key definition: Pressure is the force per unit area.
Output}}{\text{Total Energy Input}} \right) \times 100%$ Unit of pressure: pascal $(Pa)$, where 1 $Pa$ = 1 $N/m²$
Greater area over which a force acts results in less
% Efficiency formula for power
pressure.

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Liquid Pressure

Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the

further down you go, the greater the weight of liquid
above.
Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions.
Pressure depends on the density of the liquid; the
denser the liquid, the greater the pressure at any given
depth.
The change in pressure $\Delta p$ at a depth $\Delta h$
below the surface of a liquid with density $\rho$ is
determined by considering a horizontal area $A$.
Force acting vertically downwards on area $A$ equals the
weight of the liquid column of height $\Delta h$ and
cross-sectional area $A$ above it.
Volume of the liquid column: $\Delta h A$
Mass of the liquid column: $m$ $=$ $\rho \Delta h A$
$(mass = density × volume)$
Weight of the liquid column: $mg = \rho \Delta h A g$
Force on area $A$: $\rho \Delta h A g$
Pressure due to the liquid column:
$\text{pressure}$ = $\frac{\text{force}}{\text{area}}$
$\frac{\rho \Delta h A g}{A} = \rho g \Delta h$
Formula: $\Delta p = \rho g \Delta h$
$\Delta p$ is the change in pressure beneath the surface
of the liquid at depth $\Delta h$ due to the weight of a
liquid of density $\rho$
$g$ is the gravitational field strength
This pressure acts equally in all directions at depth
$\Delta h$ and depends only on $\Delta h$ and
$\rho$.
Value will be in pascals ($Pa$) if $\Delta h$ = is in meters
$(m)$ and $( \rho )$ is in kilograms per cubic meter
$(kg/m³).$

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CAIE IGCSE
Physics

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