Orthogonal Bands in OFDM

In digital wireless systems, M-ary OFDM, or 2 M-ary OFDM (M=2) is used to carry the data streams
of multiple users. In an M-ary system, the spectrum is divided into a set of Sub-bands such that
each Sub-bands is orthogonal. For example, in an 8 MHz bandwidth system, the spectrum may be
split into eight 1 MHz Sub-bands.

These eight sub-bands are typically assigned to individual channels (digital ‘sub-channels’), but
they can also be used to encode data streams from several users (analog ‘sub-carriers’).

In communication systems, OFDM has become an alternative to single-carrier modulation

techniques such as frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time-division multiple access
(TDMA), and code-division multiple access (CDMA).

what is meant by orthogonal bands?

In digital communication systems, orthogonal bands refer to frequency bands (sub-bands) that do not
interfere with each other. In Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), each sub-band, or
subcarrier, is spaced at specific intervals to maintain orthogonality, meaning the peak of one
subcarrier's frequency spectrum aligns with the zero-crossings of the adjacent subcarriers.

This orthogonality is achieved by spacing the subcarriers at multiples of the inverse of the symbol
duration, which keeps each sub-band's signals from overlapping with others even though they occupy
the same overall bandwidth. This design allows multiple channels to exist close together in the
frequency spectrum without interference, making efficient use of the available bandwidth.

In simpler terms, orthogonality in OFDM means that each sub-band can carry independent data
streams without interference from adjacent sub-bands, despite being packed tightly in frequency
space. This efficient packing and separation are crucial for supporting multiple users and high data
rates in wireless systems.

Multicarrier modulation that divides the available

channel bandwidth into sub bands of relatively
narrow width f = W/N provides a solution that could
yield transmission rates close to channel capacity
• The signal in each sub band may be independently
coded and modulated at a synchronous symbol rate
of 1/f
• If f is small enough, the channel frequency response
C( f ) is essentially constant across each sub band
• The inter symbol interference is negligible
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 • With each sub band, a sinusoidal carrier signal can
be associated
where f
k
is the mid frequency in the kth sub channel
• By selecting the symbol rate 1/T in each of the sub channels to be equal to the
frequency separation f of the adjacent subcarriers, the subcarriers are orthogonal
over the symbol interval T, independent of the relative phase relationship
between subcarriers
where f
and φ
j
k
−f
j
= n/T, n = 1, 2, . . . , N − 1, independent of the values of the phases φ
k
• OFDM is a special type of multicarrier modulation in which the subcarriers of the
corresponding sub channels are mutually orthogonal
• In an OFDM system with N sub-channels, the symbol rate 1/T is reduced by a
factor of N relative to the symbol rate on a single carrier system
• The symbol interval in the OFDM system is T = NT
interval in the single carrier system
s
, where T
s
is the symbol
• By selecting N to be sufficiently large, the symbol interval T can be made
significantly larger than the time duration of the channel-time dispersion
• Thus, inter-symbol interference can be made arbitrarily small through the
selection of N
• Each sub channel appears to have a fixed frequency response C(f
k
• Let each subcarrier is modulated with M-ary QAM
• Then the signal on the kth subcarrier may be expressed as
), k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1
• When the number of sub-channels is large, so that the sub-channels are
sufficiently narrowband
• each sub-channel can be characterized by a fixed frequency response C(f
k
• In general, C(f
k
) is complex-valued and may be expressed as
• The received signal on the kth sub-channel is
), k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1
where n
k
(t) represents the additive noise in the kth sub-channel
• Assume that
•n
k
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 (t) is zero-mean Gaussian and spectrally flat across the bandwidth of the kth sub channel
• channel parameters |C
k
| and φ
k
are known at the receiver
• The demodulation of the received signal in the kth sub channel may be
accomplished by cross-correlating r
knowledge of the carrier phase {φ
the cross-correlators at t = T
k
k
(t) with the two basis functions, based on
} at the receiver, and sampling the output of
• The received signal vector is
by |C
• The scaling of the transmitted symbol by the channel gain |Ck | can be removed
by dividing Y
k
k
|
• The normalized variable Y
k
is passed to the detector, which computes the
distance metrics between Y
k
and each of the possible signal points in the QAM
signal constellation and selects the signal point resulting in the smallest distance
• The modulation process for generating the OFDM signal can also be viewed as
exciting a bank of 2N parallel filters with symbols taken from an M-ary QAM
signal constellation
• Two cross-correlators or two matched filters are required to demodulate the
received signal in each sub channel
• If the OFDM signal consists of N sub channels
• The implementation of the OFDM demodulator requires a parallel bank of 2N cross
correlators or 2N matched filters
• The bank of 2N parallel filters that generates the modulated signal at the
transmitter and demodulates the received signal is equivalent to the computation
of the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and its inverse
• An efficient computation of the DFT is the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm
• A more efficient implementation of the modulation and demodulation processes
when N is large, e.g., N > 32, is by means of the FFT algorithm

This description explains the fundamentals of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) in
communication systems, focusing on its multi-carrier modulation approach. Let's break down the key
points in simpler terms:

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 1. Multicarrier Modulation with Sub-bands:
W
OFDM divides a wide channel into N narrower sub-bands, each with a bandwidth f = N . ​

Each sub-band carries a smaller, independent data stream, enabling the system to operate
close to the channel's capacity.
By keeping f small, each sub-band has a relatively flat frequency response, C(f ), across its
bandwidth, reducing complexity in handling frequency variations within each band.

2. Orthogonality of Subcarriers:
The sub-bands are assigned sinusoidal carriers that are spaced such that their frequency
separation, f , equals T1 , where T is the symbol period. This spacing ensures that the
​

subcarriers are orthogonal to each other over the interval T , preventing interference
between adjacent subcarriers.
Orthogonality allows these tightly packed subcarriers to coexist without causing inter-
symbol interference (ISI), which is common in single-carrier systems.

3. Symbol Rate Reduction in OFDM:

The symbol rate in each sub-channel is reduced by a factor of N , extending the symbol
duration T in OFDM to T = N Ts , where Ts is the symbol duration in a single-carrier
​ ​

system.
Increasing T reduces sensitivity to ISI caused by time dispersion in the channel, making
OFDM more robust against multipath interference.

4. Subcarrier Modulation and QAM:

Each subcarrier can be modulated with techniques like M-ary Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM), where M represents the number of symbols used.
The signal on each subcarrier can be described by its channel frequency response C(fk ), ​

with fk being the center frequency of each sub-band. The received signal in each sub-
​

channel is the transmitted signal scaled by the channel's gain and phase response.

5. Noise and Demodulation:

The received signal in each sub-channel includes additive Gaussian noise nk (t), assumed to
​

be spectrally flat.
To demodulate, the received signal rk (t) is correlated with basis functions (or matched
​

filters) at the receiver. The channel gain ∣Ck ∣ is used to normalize the received signal before
​

detection.

6. Use of FFT for Efficiency:

Modulating and demodulating OFDM signals involves computing a Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT) and its inverse, which can be efficiently achieved using the Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) when the number of sub-channels N is large.
The FFT significantly reduces the computational load, allowing OFDM to handle a high
number of sub-channels effectively, even for N > 32.

In summary, OFDM enables efficient data transmission by dividing the channel bandwidth into
orthogonal sub-bands, each carrying a low-rate data stream. Orthogonality and FFT-based processing
are key aspects that make OFDM well-suited for high-capacity, multi-user digital communication
systems.

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 what is the purpose of fft?

The purpose of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) in OFDM systems is to efficiently convert the signal
between the time and frequency domains, which is essential for both modulating and demodulating
the data.

Here’s how FFT serves in an OFDM system:

1. Efficient Modulation:
In OFDM, each subcarrier in the frequency domain carries a symbol from the data stream
(often modulated with techniques like QAM).
To transmit this signal over a physical channel, it needs to be transformed into a single
time-domain signal that represents the combined subcarriers. The Inverse FFT (IFFT)
achieves this by combining the subcarrier signals efficiently, transforming them from the
frequency domain into the time domain for transmission.

2. Efficient Demodulation:
At the receiver, the time-domain signal needs to be converted back to its frequency
components to extract the data carried by each subcarrier.
The FFT at the receiver performs this transformation, decomposing the received time-
domain signal into individual subcarriers in the frequency domain. Each subcarrier’s signal
is then demodulated to retrieve the original data.

3. Orthogonality Maintenance:
FFT inherently maintains the orthogonality between subcarriers. This means each
subcarrier can be accurately separated without interference from others, which is critical
for OFDM’s performance.

4. Computational Efficiency:
The FFT algorithm is much faster than directly computing the Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT). For large numbers of subcarriers, such as 64, 128, or more, FFT’s efficiency makes
real-time OFDM modulation and demodulation feasible.

In summary, the FFT is used to efficiently switch between the time and frequency domains, enabling
OFDM systems to handle multiple subcarriers with low computational complexity and maintain the
orthogonal nature of the subcarriers. This is vital for reliable, high-capacity data transmission in
modern digital communication systems.

Uploaded image
LTE Network Architecture
• The core network design to support LTE is Evolved Packet Core (EPC)
• Designed to provide a high-capacity, all IP, reduced latency, flat architecture that
dramatically reduces cost and supports advanced real-time and media-rich services with
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 enhanced quality of experience
• Provide interworking with legacy 2G GERAN and 3G UTRAN networks connected via
SGSN
• Provide access control, packet routing and transfer, mobility management, security, radio
resource management and network management
• EPC includes four new elements
• Serving Gateway (SGW), which terminates the interface toward the 3GPP radio access
networks
• Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW), which controls IP data services, does routing,
allocates IP addresses, enforces policy and provides access for non-3GPP access networks
• Mobility Management Entity (MME), which supports user equipment context and
identity as well as authenticates and authorizes users
• Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF), which manages QoS aspects

The entire network is composed of

• Radio access network (E-UTRAN)
• Core network (EPC)
• The main components of E-UTRAN and EPC
• UE: the mobile terminal
• eNode-B: (also called base station)
• Terminates the air interface protocol
• First point of contact for the UE
• Radio bearer management, uplink and downlink dynamic radio resource management and
data packet scheduling and mobility management
• Mobility Management Entity (MME)
• Manages mobility aspects in 3GPP access such as gateway selection and tracking area list
management
Serving gateway
• Terminates the interface toward E-UTRAN
• Routes the data packet between E-UTRAN and EPC
• Local mobility anchor point for inter-eNode-B handovers
• Provides an anchor for inter-3GPP mobility
• Include lawful intercept, charging and some policy enforcement
• Packet data network gateway
• Terminates the SGi interface towards the Packet Data Network (PDN)
• Routes packet data between the EPC and the external PDN
• Key node for policy enforcement and charging data collection
• Provides the anchor point for mobility with non-3GPP accesses
• S1 interface
• Separates E-UTRAN and EPC
• S1-U – carries traffic data between the eNode-B and the serving GW
• S1-MME –signaling-only interface between the eNode-B and MME

X2 interface
• Interface Between eNode-Bs
• X2-C –control plane interface between eNode-Bs
• X2-U –user plane interface between eNode-Bs
• Always exists between eNode-Bs that need to communicate with each other, for example,
for support of handover
• Policy and charging rules function (PCRF)
• Policy and charging control
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 • Home subscriber server (HSS)
• Responsible for service authorization and user authentication
• Serving GPRS support node (SGSN)
• Controlling packet sessions
• Managing mobility of the UE for GPRS networks
explain the above with key points

Here's a breakdown of the LTE network architecture based on the provided information:

LTE Network Architecture Overview

Evolved Packet Core (EPC): The core network for LTE designed for high-capacity, all-IP, low-
latency communication. It supports advanced services with better quality and integrates with
legacy 2G and 3G networks.
Components of LTE Network:
Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN): Connects user devices to the LTE network.
Core Network (EPC): Manages network functions like mobility, data routing, and user
policies.

Main Components and Their Functions

1. UE (User Equipment):
The mobile terminal or device used by the user.

2. eNode-B (Evolved Node B):

Acts as a base station, terminating the air interface protocol.
Handles radio bearer management, dynamic radio resource management, packet
scheduling, and mobility management.

3. EPC Elements:
Mobility Management Entity (MME):
Manages mobility, gateway selection, and tracking of UE locations.
Maintains user context and authenticates/authorizes users.
Serving Gateway (SGW):
Routes data packets between E-UTRAN and EPC.
Provides local mobility for handovers and includes functions for lawful interception,
charging, and policy enforcement.
Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW):
Connects to external IP networks, routes data, and enforces policy.
Acts as a mobility anchor for non-3GPP network access.
Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF):
Manages Quality of Service (QoS) and enforces policies on data usage and charging.
Home Subscriber Server (HSS):
Authorizes services and authenticates users based on subscription information.

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 Interfaces in the LTE Network

1. S1 Interface:
S1-U: Carries user data between the eNode-B and the SGW.
S1-MME: Used for signaling between eNode-B and MME.

2. X2 Interface:
X2-C: Control plane interface between eNode-Bs, supporting handover.
X2-U: User plane interface between eNode-Bs, allowing data transfer during handover.

Legacy Network Integration

SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node):

Manages packet sessions and UE mobility in 2G and 3G networks.

In summary, the LTE network architecture supports high-speed data transfer and mobility by dividing
responsibilities across specialized components (eNode-B, MME, SGW, PGW, PCRF, and HSS) and using
interfaces (S1, X2) to manage communication between them. This setup helps provide a seamless user
experience, regardless of network type (LTE, 2G, or 3G).

what is LTE network architecture

The LTE (Long-Term Evolution) network architecture, also known as the Evolved Packet System (EPS),
is designed to deliver high-speed, low-latency data communication for mobile devices. It is an all-IP-
based network, meaning that it exclusively uses IP for data transmission, which improves efficiency,
scalability, and flexibility. LTE architecture is divided into two primary parts: the Evolved Packet Core
(EPC) and the Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).

Here's a breakdown of the main components and interfaces:

1. Evolved Packet Core (EPC)

The EPC is the core part of the LTE network, which handles tasks like user data management, mobility
management, session management, and policy enforcement.

Mobility Management Entity (MME):

Manages control-plane functions like user registration, session setup, and mobility.
Responsible for tracking and paging of User Equipment (UE).
Handles authentication and authorization with the Home Subscriber Server (HSS).

Serving Gateway (SGW):

Acts as a local mobility anchor point when a UE moves between eNodeBs (base stations).
Routes data between the E-UTRAN and the Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW).

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 Performs charging, lawful interception, and policy enforcement.

Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW):

Provides connectivity from the EPC to external IP networks (e.g., the internet or IMS).
Assigns IP addresses to UEs, enforces QoS (Quality of Service), and manages data traffic.
Acts as an anchor point for mobility between 3GPP and non-3GPP networks.

Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF):

Determines policies for data usage and QoS.
Enforces policies based on user subscription information, controlling charging and service
quality.

Home Subscriber Server (HSS):

A centralized database that contains user subscription data, including authentication,
authorization, and roaming details.
Provides information about user profiles and sessions to the MME and other network
components.

2. Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN)

E-UTRAN is the radio access network of LTE, providing the wireless interface between the UE (User
Equipment) and the core network (EPC).

User Equipment (UE):

The mobile device (smartphone, tablet, etc.) that connects to the LTE network.

eNodeB (Evolved Node B):

The base station in LTE that connects directly to UEs.
Manages radio resources and controls the data flow between the UE and the EPC.
Responsible for radio bearer management (establishing and managing data connections
with UEs) and mobility management (handover processes).
Unlike previous generations, the eNodeB in LTE has a flat architecture, eliminating the need
for a separate controller (e.g., a Radio Network Controller in 3G).

Key Interfaces in LTE Architecture

S1 Interface:
S1-U (User Plane): Connects eNodeB to SGW for data traffic.
S1-MME (Control Plane): Connects eNodeB to MME for control signaling.

X2 Interface:
X2-C (Control Plane): Enables communication between eNodeBs for handover and other
management tasks.
X2-U (User Plane): Allows direct user data exchange between eNodeBs during handover,
facilitating seamless transitions for moving users.

LTE Network Architecture Highlights

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 Flat IP-Based Design: Reduces latency and enhances the efficiency of data transmission. Every
connection between network elements uses IP, making the architecture more scalable and less
complex.
Support for High-Speed Data Transfer: LTE aims to deliver high data rates and low latency,
essential for modern applications like video streaming, real-time gaming, and VoIP.
Seamless Handover and Mobility: Designed to enable smooth transitions for users moving
across cells or different network types (e.g., from LTE to 3G or Wi-Fi).
QoS and Policy Control: The architecture includes advanced Quality of Service (QoS)
management and policy enforcement, which ensures reliable performance for high-priority or
high-demand applications.

LTE's Integration with Legacy Networks

The LTE architecture is compatible with older networks, such as 2G (GSM) and 3G (UMTS), allowing for
backward compatibility and seamless handover between LTE and legacy systems. This is achieved
through elements like the SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node), which controls packet data sessions
and manages UE mobility across these older network types.

Summary of LTE Network Architecture

In summary, LTE network architecture is built for high-speed, reliable, and scalable mobile data
communication. It achieves this through:

A flat, all-IP-based design.

Key components like the MME, SGW, PGW, and PCRF to handle various functions (mobility,
security, QoS, and policy control).
Advanced handover and mobility management.
Compatibility with previous generations of mobile networks.

This architecture enables LTE to support the demands of modern mobile applications while
maintaining efficiency and flexibility across a wide range of network conditions.

take Airtel as an example and explain

Let's use Airtel as an example to understand how LTE network architecture works in a real-world
scenario. Airtel, as a telecommunications provider, operates an LTE network to deliver 4G services to
its customers. Here’s how Airtel would implement and manage an LTE network architecture with
different components, all of which contribute to a high-speed data experience and seamless
connectivity for users.

1. Evolved Packet Core (EPC) – Airtel's Core Network

The EPC is the heart of Airtel’s LTE network, managing data flow, mobility, and policy control. Each
component in the EPC has a specific function:

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 Mobility Management Entity (MME):
Airtel’s MME tracks the user’s connection as they move between different cells or areas
within Airtel's coverage.
It’s responsible for authenticating users, managing user registration, and handling idle
connections.
For example, if a customer moves from one city to another, the MME helps maintain the
session by connecting to the nearest eNodeB (base station).

Serving Gateway (SGW):

Airtel's SGW routes user data packets from the eNodeB to the Packet Data Network
Gateway (PGW).
It serves as the anchor point for handover when a user moves between base stations
(eNodeBs).
For instance, if a user in Delhi is watching a video while traveling on a train, the SGW
ensures a seamless connection by handling data continuity between different eNodeBs
along the way.

Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW):

Airtel’s PGW connects the LTE network to the external internet and assigns IP addresses to
user devices.
It manages data policies and Quality of Service (QoS) settings, ensuring that high-priority
traffic (like video calls) receives more bandwidth than background apps.
For example, when a user opens a YouTube video on their Airtel network, the PGW routes
this request to the internet and ensures smooth data flow for a buffer-free experience.

Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF):

Airtel’s PCRF determines data usage policies and applies them to ensure fair use of network
resources.
It monitors the user's data consumption, applies speed caps after reaching data limits, and
can prioritize traffic based on data plans.
For example, if a user on a basic plan has a lower data cap, the PCRF might slow down their
connection after a certain threshold, while a premium user may continue with high-speed
access.

Home Subscriber Server (HSS):

This is Airtel’s database that stores user subscription information, including details like data
limits, roaming permissions, and authentication credentials.
It authorizes users based on their SIM information, ensuring that only valid customers
access Airtel’s network.

2. Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) – Airtel’s Radio

Access Network

The E-UTRAN is Airtel’s network of eNodeBs (base stations) that connect directly to users’ mobile
devices. This network handles data transmission over the air (radio interface) between user devices
and the EPC.

User Equipment (UE):

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 In Airtel’s network, the User Equipment (UE) is the smartphone or mobile device that
connects to the internet through Airtel's LTE service.
For example, when a customer uses an Airtel SIM card in their smartphone, it becomes part
of Airtel's LTE network as a UE.

eNodeB (Evolved Node B):

Airtel’s eNodeBs are the base stations that communicate with the UEs over radio waves.
They handle data traffic, resource allocation, and manage connections for each device in
their coverage area.
Each eNodeB is connected to the EPC via the S1 interface and can communicate with other
eNodeBs over the X2 interface.
For instance, if an Airtel user in Mumbai is downloading an app, the data packet travels
from the EPC to the eNodeB and finally to the user’s smartphone.

3. Key Interfaces in Airtel’s LTE Network

S1 Interface:
This is the connection between Airtel's eNodeBs and the EPC.
S1-U (User Plane) carries user data traffic (such as a YouTube video stream) between the
eNodeB and the SGW.
S1-MME (Control Plane) carries signaling data between the eNodeB and the MME,
handling functions like authentication and session management.

X2 Interface:
This interface exists between eNodeBs and is crucial for handovers when users move from
one cell to another.
X2-C (Control Plane) manages control information during handovers.
X2-U (User Plane) carries user data between eNodeBs.
For instance, when an Airtel user moves from one coverage area to another while on a call,
the X2 interface ensures seamless connectivity without interruption.

4. Real-World Use Cases in Airtel’s LTE Network

Handover and Mobility Management:

Suppose a customer is on a video call while traveling across multiple base stations in a car.
The MME in Airtel's EPC continuously manages their session, while the SGW and X2
Interface handle the handover process from one eNodeB to another.
This process allows uninterrupted service as the user moves, ensuring a smooth experience
even while transitioning between different base station areas.

QoS and Policy Control:

Airtel’s PCRF manages Quality of Service (QoS) and implements policies based on user
subscriptions.
For example, if a user is on a data plan with priority service, the PCRF allocates a higher
bandwidth to that user for a smoother internet experience compared to a standard user.

Connecting to External Networks (Internet):

When an Airtel customer accesses a website, the PGW connects to the internet, enabling
the data request from the UE to reach the external server.
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 The PGW also assigns IP addresses to each UE, ensuring that data packets reach the right
destination on the internet.

5. Legacy Interoperability with 3G and 2G

Airtel’s LTE network is backward compatible, meaning it can interoperate with legacy networks like 2G
(GSM) and 3G (UMTS). This is achieved using a Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN), which manages
mobility and sessions when users switch from LTE to 3G or 2G.

For example, if an Airtel user is in a rural area with only 2G coverage, their device will switch from
LTE to 2G seamlessly, managed by the SGSN and the eNodeB.

Summary of Airtel’s LTE Network Architecture

All-IP Core Network (EPC) allows for efficient, scalable data management and session control.
Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) connects users to the core network using eNodeBs, providing
a stable connection and handling mobility.
Advanced QoS and Policy Management through PCRF ensures that users experience different
levels of service quality based on their data plans.
Seamless Handover and Mobility Management allow Airtel to deliver uninterrupted services,
even when users are on the move.
Compatibility with Legacy Networks enables Airtel to serve users in areas with limited LTE
coverage by falling back on 2G or 3G networks.

This LTE network architecture enables Airtel to provide high-speed internet, low-latency data services,
and smooth connectivity for its customers, regardless of location or mobility. It’s also future-ready,
allowing Airtel to integrate with 5G and other advanced technologies in the future.

what are UTRAN and GERAN

UTRAN and GERAN are both types of radio access networks used in cellular communication, primarily
associated with 3G and 2G technologies, respectively. Let's dive into each:

1. UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network)

UTRAN is the radio access network used in 3G networks based on UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System) technology. It connects User Equipment (UE), like mobile phones and
data cards, to the core network and is responsible for providing high-speed data and voice services.

Key Components of UTRAN:

Node B:
Similar to the base stations in 2G, Node B is responsible for radio transmission and
reception, managing the air interface with user devices.

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 It handles lower-level processing, like signal transmission, power control, and error
correction.
Multiple Node Bs connect to a single RNC.

RNC (Radio Network Controller):

The RNC is a controller that manages multiple Node Bs. It’s responsible for managing radio
resources, mobility (e.g., handovers), and call setup.
It also performs encryption and controls quality of service (QoS) for different types of data
traffic.

UTRAN Interfaces:

Uu Interface: This is the air interface between the UE (mobile device) and Node B.
Iu Interface: This connects the RNC to the core network components:
Iu-CS (Circuit-Switched): Connects to the MSC for voice and SMS services.
Iu-PS (Packet-Switched): Connects to the SGSN for internet and other data services.
Iub Interface: Connects Node B to the RNC.
Iur Interface: Connects multiple RNCs to each other, allowing seamless handovers between
them.

Key Functions of UTRAN:

Handover Management: UTRAN manages seamless handovers between different cells (Node
Bs) and RNCs to maintain active connections when users move.
Resource Allocation: UTRAN manages the allocation of network resources to ensure efficient
data flow and quality of service for users.
Security and QoS: It provides encryption, quality of service control, and power management to
ensure data integrity and efficient network performance.

2. GERAN (GSM EDGE Radio Access Network)

GERAN is the radio access network used in 2G (GSM) and 2.5G (EDGE) networks. It’s responsible for
providing basic voice services, text messaging, and low-speed data transmission over GSM and EDGE
technologies.

Key Components of GERAN:

BTS (Base Transceiver Station):

The BTS is the base station that communicates directly with mobile devices over radio
frequencies.
It handles basic radio functions like signal transmission, modulation, and error correction.

BSC (Base Station Controller):

The BSC manages multiple BTSs and handles the allocation of radio channels, power
control, and handovers.
It connects to the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) in the core network, which manages call
control and mobility for voice and SMS.

GERAN Interfaces:
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 Um Interface: This is the air interface between the UE and BTS.
A Interface: Connects the BSC to the MSC in the core network for circuit-switched services like
voice calls.
Gb Interface: Connects the BSC to the SGSN for packet-switched services (e.g., GPRS/EDGE
data).
Abis Interface: Connects the BTS to the BSC and allows the BSC to control and manage multiple
BTSs.

Key Functions of GERAN:

Voice and SMS: GERAN primarily supports circuit-switched services like voice calls and SMS.
Data Services (GPRS/EDGE): GERAN also provides basic packet-switched data services like GPRS
(General Packet Radio Service) and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution), allowing
users to access limited mobile internet services.
Handover Management: GERAN provides basic handover functionality, enabling users to
maintain ongoing calls as they move between cells (from one BTS to another).
Power Control: GERAN adjusts the transmission power for devices based on their distance from
the BTS, which helps conserve battery life and maintain signal quality.

Summary of Differences: UTRAN vs. GERAN

Feature UTRAN GERAN

Technology 3G (UMTS) 2G (GSM) and 2.5G (EDGE)
Main Components Node B, RNC BTS, BSC

Core Connections Iu-CS, Iu-PS A Interface (for MSC), Gb (for SGSN)

Data Speed Higher speeds, suitable for data & voice Lower speeds, primarily for voice
Functions High-speed data, QoS, advanced handovers Basic voice, SMS, limited data

Data Technology WCDMA GPRS/EDGE

In summary, GERAN is the foundational radio network for 2G and early data services, providing
reliable voice and text messaging capabilities, while UTRAN introduced higher data speeds and
advanced network features for 3G services, supporting modern data and multimedia needs. Both
architectures are integrated into modern cellular networks to offer backward compatibility for users in
areas with limited 3G or 4G coverage.

• Acronym for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access

• Family of wireless broadband communication standards based on the IEEE
802.16 set of standards, which provide physical layer (PHY) and media access
control (MAC) options
• Based on Wireless MAN technology
• A wireless technology optimized for the delivery of IP centric services over a wide
area
• A scalable wireless platform for constructing alternative and complementary
broadband networks
• The IEEE 802.16 Working Group develops standards that address two types of

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 usage models
• A fixed usage model (IEEE 802.16-2004)
• A portable usage model (IEEE 802.16e)
• IEEE 802.16mor WirelessMAN-Advanced was a candidate for 4G
WiMAX Blocks
• WiMAX base station
• Maximum radius of the cell : 50 Km ; Practical limit –10 Km
• MAC Layer : Common interface that makes the network interoperable and would allocate
uplink and downlink bandwidth to subscribers according to their needs in real –time basis
• WiMAX receiver
• Separate Antenna/ stand-alone box or PCMCIA card referred as customer premise equipment
• Similar to access point in a WiFi
WiMAX Security
• Support for Privacy
• Device/User Authentication
• Flexible Key management Protocol
features of WiMAX
• Scalability
• QoS
• Support for Mobility
• Speed –70Mbps
• Frequency band –2 GHz to 11GHz ; 10 to 66 GHz

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a family of wireless broadband

communication standards based on the IEEE 802.16 set of standards. Here’s a breakdown of its key
aspects and features:

Overview of WiMAX

Acronym: WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.

Technology: Based on Wireless MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) technology, WiMAX is
optimized for delivering IP-centric services over wide areas.
Standards: WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 standards, which define physical layer (PHY) and
media access control (MAC) options.
Purpose: It provides a scalable wireless platform for constructing alternative or
complementary broadband networks.
Usage Models:
Fixed Model (IEEE 802.16-2004) for stationary applications.
Portable Model (IEEE 802.16e) that supports mobile applications.
IEEE 802.16m (WirelessMAN-Advanced) was also considered as a candidate for 4G
technology.

Components of WiMAX

1. WiMAX Base Station:

Functions similarly to a cellular base station.

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 Can theoretically cover a radius of up to 50 km, but the practical range is typically around
10 km.

2. MAC Layer:
Provides a common interface to ensure network interoperability.
Dynamically allocates uplink and downlink bandwidth to subscribers based on real-time
needs.

3. WiMAX Receiver:
Often referred to as Customer Premise Equipment (CPE).
Can be a standalone device with an antenna or a PCMCIA card for laptops.
Works similarly to a WiFi access point but operates over a larger area and with different
standards.

WiMAX Security Features

Privacy: Ensures secure transmission of data.

Device/User Authentication: Verifies the identity of devices and users accessing the network.
Flexible Key Management Protocol: Supports encryption and secure communication.

Key Features of WiMAX

Scalability: Supports a wide range of user densities and cell sizes, making it suitable for both
rural and urban deployments.
Quality of Service (QoS): Ensures reliable performance for various applications (e.g., voice,
video, and data).
Support for Mobility: Offers connectivity for moving users, making it suitable for mobile
broadband.
Speed: Provides high-speed connectivity, capable of reaching up to 70 Mbps.
Frequency Bands: Operates in a variety of frequency ranges, from 2 GHz to 11 GHz for standard
applications and 10 GHz to 66 GHz for line-of-sight (LOS) applications.

Summary

WiMAX is a flexible and scalable broadband technology capable of providing high-speed internet
access over a large area. It supports both fixed and mobile users, offers strong security, and operates
across a wide range of frequencies, making it suitable for diverse environments. WiMAX is often
compared to WiFi but is designed for broader coverage, higher speeds, and better support for
mobility and QoS.
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