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UNIT 1
Introduction to circuit elements R, L, C and their characteristics in terms of linearity and
time dependence, KCL and KVL analysis, dual networks, analysis of magnetically coupled
circuits, Dot convention, coupling co-efficient, Tuned circuits, Series and parallel resonance,
voltage and current sources, controlled sources
Introduction of Electric Circuit
Objectives

o Familiarity with and understanding of the basic elements encountered in electric

networks.
o To learn the fundamental differences between linear and nonlinear circuits.
o To u de sta d the Ki hhoff s oltage a d u e t la s a d thei appli atio s to
circuits.
o Meaning of circuit ground and the voltages referenced to ground.
o Understanding the basic principles of voltage dividers and current dividers.
o Potentiometer and loading effects.
o To understand the fundamental differences between ideal and practical voltage
and current sources and their mathematical models to represent these source models
in electric circuits.
o Distinguish between independent and dependent sources those encountered in
electric circuits.
o Meaning of delivering and absorbing power by the source.
Introduction
The interconnection of various electric elements in a prescribed manner comprises
as an electric circuit in order to perform a desired function. The electric elements
include controlled and uncontrolled source of energy, resistors, capacitors, inductors,
etc. Analysis of electric circuits refers to computations required to determine the
unknown quantities such as voltage, current and power associated with one or more
elements in the circuit. To contribute to the solution of engineering problems one must
acquire the basic knowledge of electric circuit analysis and laws. Many other systems,
like mechanical, hydraulic, thermal, magnetic and power system are easy to analyze and
model by a circuit. To learn how to analyze the models of these systems, first one needs to
learn the techniques of circuit analysis. We shall discuss briefly some of the basic circuit
elements and the laws that will help us to develop the background of subject.

Basic Elements & Introductory Concepts

Electrical Network: A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor,
Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is
called an electrical network. We may classify circuit elements in two categories, passive
and active elements.

Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then
either converts it into heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L ) field is
called passive element.
Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element.
Examples of active elements include voltage and current sources, generators, and
electronic devices that require power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element,

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meaning that it can amplify power of a signal. On the other hand, transformer is not an
active element because it does not amplify the power level and power remains same both
in primary and secondary sides. Transformer is an example of passive element.

Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example:

Resistance; Inductance; Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element.

Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral

(example: Diode, Transistor) element.

Meaning of Response: An application of input signal to the system will produce an output
signal, the behavior of output signal with time is known as the response of the system.
Linear and Nonlinear Circuits

Non-Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a non-linear system is that whose parameters

change with voltage or current. More specifically, non-linear circuit does not obey the
homogeneity and additive properties. Volt-ampere characteristics of linear and non-linear
elements are shown in figs. 3.2 - 3.3. In fact, a circuit is linear if and only if its input and
output can be related by a straight line passing through the origin as shown in fig.3.2.
otherwise, it is a nonlinear system.

Network Analysis, ECE, CDGI, Indore Page 2

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Potential Energy Difference: The voltage or potential energy difference between two points
in an electric circuit is the amount of energy required to move a unit charge between
the two points.

Ki hhoff s La s
Ki hhoff s la s a e asi a al ti al tools i o de to o tai the solutio s of u e ts a d
voltages for any electric circuit; whether it is supplied from a direct-current system or an
alternating current system. But with complex circuits the equations connecting the
currents and voltages may become so numerous that much tedious algebraic work is
involve in their solutions.

Elements that generally encounter in an electric circuit can be interconnected in various

possible ways. Before discussing the basic analytical tools that determine the currents
and voltages at different parts of the circuit, some basic definition of the following
terms are considered.

Node- A node in an electric circuit is a point where two or more components are
connected together. This point is usually marked with dark circle or dot. The circuit in
fig. 3.4 has nodes a, b, c, and g. Generally, a point, or a node in an circuit specifies a
certain voltage level with respect to a reference point or node. Branch- A branch is a
conducting path between two nodes in a circuit containing the electric elements. These
elements could be sources, resistances, or other elements. Fig.3.4 shows that the circuit
has six branches: three resistive branches (a-c, b-c, and b-g) and three branches containing
voltage and current sources (a-, a-, and c-g). Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric
circuit i.e., a closed path or loop in a circuit is a contiguous sequence of branches which
starting and end points for tracing the path are, in effect, the same node and touches no
other node more than once. Fig. 3.4 shows three loops or closed paths namely, a-b-g-a; b-c-
g-b; and a-c-b-a. Further, it may be noted that the outside closed paths a-c-g-a and a-b-c- g-
a are also form two loops.

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Mesh- a mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other loops within it or in its
interior. Fig. 3.4 indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-c-b-a) just
ide tified a e also eshes ut othe t o loops a-c-g-a a-b-c-g-a) are not. With the
i t odu tio of the Ki hhoff s la s, a a ious t pes of ele t i i uits a e a al zed.

Kirchhoff’s Current La KCL : KCL states that at any node (junction) in a circuit the
algebraic sum of currents entering and leaving a node at any instant of time must be equal
to zero. Here currents entering (+ve sign) and currents leaving (-ve sign) the node must be
assigned opposite algebraic signs

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): It states that in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all
source voltages must be equal to the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops. Voltage drop
is encountered when current flows in an element (resistance or load) from the higher-
potential terminal toward the lower potential terminal. Voltage rise is encountered when
current flows in an element (voltage source) from lower potential terminal (or negative
terminal of voltage source) toward the higher potential terminal (or positive A, B, C, and
E with respect to point D . Find also the value of voltage source.

In many cases, such as in electronic circuits, the chassis is shorted to the earth itself for
safety reasons. Understanding the Basic Principles of Voltage Dividers and Current dividers

Voltage Divider

Current, voltage, power and energy

The most elementary quantity in the analysis of electric circuits is the electric charge. Our
interest in electric charge is centered around its motion results in an energy transfer. Charge
is the intrinsic property of matter responsible for electrical phenomena. The quantity of
charge q can be expressed in terms of the charge on one electron. Which are -1.602 x 10-19
coulombs? Thus, -1 coulomb is the charge on 6.24 x 1018electrons. The current flows
through a specified area A and is defined by the electric charge passing through that area
per unit time. Thus we define q as the charge expressed in coulombs.

Charge is the quantity of electricity responsible for electric phenomena. The time rate of
change constitutes an electric current. Mathematically, this relation is expressed as

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The unit of current is ampere (A); an ampere is 1 coulomb per second. Current is the time
rate of flow of electric charge past a given point. The basic variables in electric circuits are
current and voltage. If a current flows into terminal of the element shown in Fig., then a
voltage or potential difference exists between the two terminals a and b. Normally, we say
that a voltage exists across the element.

The voltage across an element is the work done in moving a positive charge of 1 coulomb
from first terminal through the element to second terminal. The unit of voltage is volt, V or
Joules per coulomb. We have defined voltage in Joules per coulomb as the energy required
to move a Positive charge of 1 coulomb through an element. If we assume that we are
dealing with a differential amount of charge and energy,

Which is the time rate of change of energy or power measured in Joules per second or watts
(). P could be either positive or negative. Hence it is imperative to give sign convention for
power. If we use the signs as shown in Fig., the current flows out of the terminal indicated by
x, which shows the positive sign for the voltage. In this case, the element is said to provide
energy to the charge as it moves through. Power is then provided by the element.

Conversely, power absorbed by an element is p = vi, when i is entering through the positive
voltage terminal.
Energy is the capacity to perform work. Energy and power are related to each other by the
following equation:

Linear, active and passive elements

A linear element is one that satisfies the principle of superposition and homogeneity.
Passive Circuit Elements
An element is said to be passive if the total energy delivered to it from the rest of the circuit
is either zero or positive. Then for a passive element, with the current flowing into the

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positive (+) terminal as shown in Fig. shown above this means that

Resistors
Resistance is the physical property of an element or device that impedes the flow of current;
it is represented by the symbol R. Resistance of a wire element is calculated using the
relation:

Where A is the cross-se tio al a ea, ρ the esisti it , a d l the length of the wire. The
p a ti al u it of esista e is oh a d ep ese ted the s ol Ω. A ele e t is said to
have a resistance of 1 ohm, if it permits 1A of current to flow through it when 1V is
i p essed a oss its te i als. Oh s la , hi h is related to voltage and current, was
published in 1827 as

Where v is the potential across the resistive element, i the current through it, and R the
resistance of the element. The power absorbed by a resistor is given by

Inductors
Whenever a time-changing current is passed through a coil or wire, the voltage across it is
proportional to the rate of change of current through the coil. This proportional relationship
may be expressed by the equation

Where L is the constant of proportionality known as inductance and is measured in Henrys

(H). Remember v and I am both functions of time. Let us assume that the coil shown in Fig.
a o e has N tu s a d the o e ate ial has a high pe ea ilit so that the ag eti flu ф
is connected within the area A. The changing flux creates an induced voltage in each turn

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e ual to the de i ati e of the flu ф so the total oltage a oss N tu s is

Capacitors
A capacitor is a two-terminal element that is a model of a device consisting of two
conducting plates separated by a dielectric material. Capacitance is a measure of the ability
of a device to store energy in the form of an electric field.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge stored to the voltage difference between
the two conducting plates or wires,

The current through the capacitor is given by

The energy stored in a capacitor is

Active Circuit Elements (Energy Sources)

An active two-terminal element that supplies energy to a circuit is a source of energy. An
ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage across the
terminals regardless of the current flowing in those terminals. Similarly, an ideal current
source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed current through its terminals
regardless of the voltage across those terminals.
These circuit elements do not exist as practical devices; they are only idealized models of
actual voltage and current sources.
Ideal voltage and current sources can be further described as either independent sources or
dependent sources. An independent source establishes a voltage or current in a circuit
without relying on voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit. The value of the voltage or
current supplied is specified by the value of the independent source alone.
In contrast, a dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose value depends on
the value of the voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit. We cannot specify the value of a
dependent source, unless you know the value of the voltage or current on which it depends.
The circuit symbols for ideal independent sources are shown in Fig. 1.8.(a) and (b).
Note that a circle is used to represent an independent source. The circuit symbols for
dependent sources are shown in Fig. 1.8.(c), (d), (e) and (f). A diamond symbol is used to
represent dependent sources.

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Unilateral and bilateral networks

A Unilateral network is one whose properties or characteristics change with the direction.
An example of unilateral network is the semiconductor diode, which conducts only in one
direction.
A bilateral network is one whose properties or characteristics are same in either direction.
For example, a transmission line is a bilateral network, because it can be made to perform
the function equally well in either direction.

Network simplification techniques

In this section, we shall give the formula for reducing the networks consisting of resistors
connected in series or parallel.
Resistors in Series
When a number of resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance of the
combination is given by

Thus the total resistance is the algebraic sum of individual resistances.

Resistors in Parallel
When a number of resistors are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. below, then the
equivalent resistance of the combination is computed as follows:

Thus, the reciprocal of a equivalent resistance of a parallel combination is the sum of the
reciprocal of the individual resistances. Reciprocal of resistance is conductance and denoted
by G. Consequently the equivalent conductance,

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Division of Current in a Parallel Circuit

Consider a two branch parallel circuit as shown in Fig. below. The branch currents I1 and I2
can be evaluated in terms of total current I as follows:

That is, current in one branch equals the total current multiplied by the resistance of the
other branch and then divided by the sum of the resistances.

Kirchhoff’s la s
In the proceeding section, we have seen how simple resistive networks can be solved for
current, resistance, potential etc using the concept of Oh s law. But as the network
becomes complex, application of Oh s law for solving the networks becomes tedious and
hence time consuming. For solving such complex networks, we make use of Ki hhoff s la s.
Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887), an eminent German physicist, did a considerable amount of
work on the principles governing the behavior of electric circuits. He gave his findings in a
set of two laws: (i) current law and (ii) voltage law, hi h togethe a e k o as Ki hhoff s
laws. Before proceeding to the statement of these two laws let us familiarize ourselves with
the following definitions encountered very often in the world of electrical circuits:

Node: A node of a network is an equi-potential surface at which two or more circuit

elements are joined. Referring to Fig. above, we find that A,B,C and D qualify as nodes in
respect of the above definition.
Junction: A junction is that point in a network, where three or more circuit elements are
joined. In Fig. above, we find that B and D are the junctions.
Branch: A branch is that part of a network which lies between two junction points. In Fig.
above, BAD,BCD and BD qualify as branches.

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Loop: A loop is any closed path of a network. Thus, in Fig. above, ABDA,BCDB and ABCDA are
the loops.
Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be further divided into
other loops. In Fig. above, ABDA and BCDB are the examples of mesh. Once ABDA and BCDB
are taken as meshes, the loop ABCDA does not qualify as a mesh, because it contains loops
ABDA and BCDB.

Kirchhoff’s Current La
The fi st la is Ki hhoff s u e t la KCL , hi h states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering any node is zero. Let us consider the node shown in Fig. below. The sum of the
currents entering the node is
Note that we have – in since the current is leaving the node. If we multiply the foregoing
equation by -1, we obtain the expression which simply states that the algebraic sum of
currents leaving a node is zero.

Which states that the sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving
the node? If the sum of the currents entering a node were not equal to zero, then the charge
would be accumulating at a node. However, a node is a perfect conductor and cannot
accumulate or store charge. Thus, the sum of currents entering a node is equal to zero.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage La
Ki hhoff s oltage la KVL states that the alge ai su of oltages a ou d a losed
path i a i uit is ze o. I ge e al, the athe ati al ep ese tatio of Ki hhoff s oltage
law is

Where Vj (t) is the voltage across the Jth branch (with proper reference direction) in a loop
o tai i g N oltages. I Ki hhoff s oltage la , the alge ai sig is used to keep t a k of
the voltage polarity. In other words, as we traverse the circuit, it is necessary to sum the
increases and decreases in voltages to zero. Therefore, it is important to keep track of
whether the voltage is increasing or decreasing as we go through each element. We will
adopt a policy of considering the increase in voltage as negative and a decrease in voltage as
positive.

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Consider the circuit shown in Fig. above, where the voltage for each element is identified
with its sign. The ideal wire used for connecting the components has zero resistance, and
thus the voltage across it is equal to zero. The sum of voltages around the loop incorporating
v6 , v3 , v4 and v5. The sum of voltages around a loop is equal to zero. A circuit loop is a
conservative system, meaning that the work required to move a unit charge around any
loop is zero. However, it is important to note that not all electrical systems are conservative.
Example of a non conservative system is a radio wave broadcasting system.

Multiple current source networks

Let us now learn how to reduce a network having multiple current sources and a number of
resistors in parallel. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. below. We have assumed that the
upper node is v(t) volts positive with respect to the lower node. Applying KCL to upper node
yields

Source transformations
Source transformation is a procedure which transforms one source into another while
retaining the terminal characteristics of the original source. Source transformation is based
on the concept of equivalence. An equivalent circuit is one whose terminal characteristics
remain identical to those of the original circuit. The term equivalence as applied to circuits
means an identical e.ect at the terminals, but not within the equivalent circuits themselves.

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However, real or practical dc voltage sources do not exhibit such characteristics (see fig.
3.14) in practice. We observed that as the load resistance R connected across the source
is decreased, the corresponding load current IL increases while the terminal voltage
across the source decreases (see eq.3.1). We can realize such voltage drop across the
terminals with increase in load current provided a resistance element ( Rs) present
inside the voltage source. Fig. 3.15 shows the
model of practical or real voltage source of value .

The terminal sV − I characteristics of the practical voltage ss ource can be described by an

equation VLV – ILR (3.1) and this equation is represented graphically as shown in
fig.3.16. In practiceL, when a load resistance R more than 100 times larger than the
source resistance Rs , the source can be considered approximately ideal voltage
source. In other words, the internal resistance of the source can be omitted. This
statement can be verified using the relation RL 100R in equation (3.1). The practical
voltage source is characterized by two parameters namely known as (i) Open circuit
voltage (V ii I te al esista e i the sou e s i uit odel. In many practical
situations, it is quite important to determine the source parameters experimentally. We
shall discuss briefly a method in order to obtain source parameters.

Method-: Connect a variable load resistance across the source terminals (see fig. 3.15). A
voltmeter is connected across the load and an ammeter is connected in series with the
load resistance. Voltmeter and Ammeter readings for several choices of load resistances
are presented on the graph paper (see fig. 3.16). The slope of the line is −R s , while the
curve intercepts with voltage axis ( at I L ) is the value of V .

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The V − I characteristic of the source is also called the sou e s regulation cur e or load
line . The open-circuit voltage is also called the no-load voltage, V c . Tohe
maximum allowable load current (rated current) is known as full-load current Fl and
the o espo di g sou e o load te i al oltage is k o as full-load oltage
FL . We know that the source terminal voltage varies as the load is varied and this is due to
internal voltage drop inside the source. The percentage change in source terminal
voltage from no-load to full-load u e t is te ed the oltage egulatio of the sou e.
It is defined as

For ideal voltage source, there should be no change in voltage from no-load to full-load
and this corresponds to ze o oltage egulatio . For best possible
performance, the voltage source should have the lowest possible regulation and this
indicates a smallest possible internal voltage drop and the smallest possible internal
resistance.

Ideal and Practical Current Sources

Another two-terminal element of common use in circuit modeling is `current source`
as depicted in fig.3.17. An ideal current source, which is represented by a model in fig.
3.17(a), is a device that delivers a constant current to any load resistance connected
across it, no matter what the terminal voltage is developed across the load (i.e.,
independent of the voltage across its terminals across the terminals).

It can be noted fromL model of the current source that the current flowing from the
source to the load is always constant for any load resistance (see fig. 3.19(a)) i.e. whether
L is small (VL is small is large (VL is large). The vertical dasheL d line in fig.
3.18 represents the V − I characteristic of ideal current source. In practice, when a load
R is connected across a practical current source, one can observe that the current
flowing in load resistance is reduced as the voltage across the current sou e s terminal
is increased, by increasing the load resistance R . Since the distribution of source
current in two parallel paths entirely depends on the value of external resistance that
connected across the source (current source) terminals. This fact can be realized by
introducing a parallel resistances in parallel with the practical current source , as shown
in fig. 3.17(b). The dark lines in fig. 3.18 show the V − I characteristic (load-line) of
practical current source. The slope of the curve represents the internal resistance of the
source. One can apply KCL at the top terminal of the current source in fig. 3.17(b) to
obtain the following expression.
respectively. It can be noted from the fig.3.18 that source 1 has a larger internal
resistance than source 2 and the slope the curve indicates the internal resistance Rs of
the current source. Thus, source 1 is closer to the ideal source. More specifically, if
the source internal resistance
then source acts nearly as an ideal current source.

Current source to Voltage Source

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Remarks on practical sources: ( i ) The open circuit voltage that appears at the
terminals A & B for two sources (voltage & current) is same (i.e., V ). s

( ii ) When the terminals A & B are shorted by an ammeter, the shot-circuit results same
in both cases (i.e., ).
( iii ) If an arbitrary resistor ( R ) is conLnected across the output terminals A & B of

either source, the same power will be dissipated in it.

( iv ) The sources are equivalent only as concerns on their behavior at the external
terminals.
( v ) The internal behavior of both sources is quite different (i.e., when open circuit the
voltage source does not dissipate any internal power while the current source
dissipates. Reverse situation is observed in short-circuit condition).8 Independent and
Dependent Sources that encountered in electric circuits Independent Sources
So far the voltage and current sourcess (whether ideal or practical) that have been
discussed are known as independent sources and these sources play an important roles to
drive the circuit in order to perform a specific job. The internal values of these sources
(either voltage source or current source) – that is, the generated voltage V or

The generated current s (see figs. 3.15 & 3.17) are not affected by the load connected
across the source terminals or across any other element that exists elsewhere in the
circuit or external to the source.

Dependent Sources
Another class of electrical sources is characterized by dependent source or controlled
source. In fact the source voltage or current depends on a voltage across or a current
through some other element elsewhere in the circuit. Sources, which exhibit this
dependency, are called dependent sources. Both voltage and current types of sources may
be dependent, and either may be controlled by a voltage or a current. In general,

Dependent source is represented by a diamond ()-shaped symbol as not to confuse it with

an independent source. One can classify dependent voltage and current sources into four
types of sources as shown in fig.3.21. These are listed below:
(i) Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) (ii) Current-controlled voltage source (ICVS)
(iii) Voltage-controlled current source (VCIS) (iv) Current-controlled current source(ICIS)

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Note: When the value of the source (either voltage or current) is controlled by a
voltage ( vx ) somewhere else in the circuit, the source is said to be voltage-controlled
source. On the other hand, when the value of the source (either voltage or current) is
controlled by a current ( ix ) somewhere else in the circuit, the source is said to be current-
controlled source. KVL and KCL laws can be applied to networks containing such
dependent sources. Source conversions, from dependent voltage source models to
dependent current source models, or visa-versa, can be employed as needed to simplify
the network. One may come across with the dependent sources in many equivalent-
circuit models of electronic devices (transistor, BJT (bipolar junction transistor), FET( field-
effect transistor) etc.) and transducers.

9 Understanding Delivering and Absorbing Power by the Source. It is essential to

differentiate between the absorption of power (or dissipating power) and the generating
(or delivering) power. The power absorbed or dissipated by any circuit element when
flows in a load element from higher potential point (i.e +ve terminal) toward the
lower terminal point (i.e., -ve terminal). This situation is observed when charging a
battery or source because the source is absorbing power. On the other hand, when
current flows in a source from the lower potential point (i.e., -ve terminal) toward the
higher potential point (i.e., +ve terminal), we call that source is generating power or
delivering power to the other elements in the electric circuit. In this case, one can note
that the battery is acting as a sou e whereas the other element is acting as a si k .

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