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Superposition theorem

The principle of superposition is applicable only for linear systems. The concept of superposition can be explained
mathematically by the following response and excitation principle :

The quantity to the left of the arrow indicates the excitation and to the right, the system response. Thus, we can
state that a device, if excited by a current i1 will produce a response v1. Similarly, an excitation i2 will cause a
response v2. Then if we use an excitation i1 + i2, we will find a response v1 + v2.

The principle of superposition has the ability to reduce a complicated problem to several easier problems each
containing only a single independent source.

Superposition theorem states that,

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In any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, the current or voltage at any point in the network
may be calculated as algebraic sum of the individual contributions of each source acting alone.

When determining the contribution due to a particular independent source, we disable all the remaining
independent sources. That is, all the remaining voltage sources are made zero by replacing them with short circuits,
and all remaining current sources are made zero by replacing them with open circuits. Also, it is important to note
that if a dependent source is present, it must remain active (unaltered) during the process of superposition.

Q. Fi d the urre t i the 6 Ω resistor usi g the pri iple of superpositio for the ir uit

ANS:

The e i ’s theore

The ai o je ti e of The e i ’s theo e is to edu e so e po tio of a i uit to a e ui ale t source and a single
element. This reduced equivalent circuit connected to the remaining part of the circuit will allow us to find the
desi ed u e t o oltage. The e i ’s theo e is ased o i uit e ui ale e. A i uit e ui ale t to a othe i uit
exhibits identical characteristics at identical terminals.

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The The e i ’s theore ay e stated as follo s:

A linear two–terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source Vt in series
with a resistor Rt, Where Vt is the open–circuit voltage at the terminals and Rt is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off or Rt is the ratio of open–circuit voltage to the
short–circuit current at the terminal pair.

Norto ’s theore

Norto ’s theore states that a li ear two-terminal network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
a current source iN in parallel with resistor RN, where iN is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN
is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. If one does not
wish to turn off the independent sources, then RNis the ratio of open circuit voltage to short–circuit current at the
terminal pair.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

In circuit analysis, we are some times interestedin determining the maximum power that a circuit can supply to the
load. Consider the linear circuit A as shown in Fig.

Circuit A is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from a and b

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The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power delivered by a source represented by its
Thevenin equivalent circuit is attained when the load RLis equal to the Thevenin resistance RT,

A simple circuit as shown in is considered to the concept of equivalent circuit and it is always possible to view even a
very complicated circuit in terms of much simpler equivalent source and load circuits. Subsequently the reduction of
computational complexity that involves in solving the current through a branch for different values of load resistance
( RL ) is also discussed. In many applications, a network may contain a variable component or element while other
elements in the circuit are kept constant. If the solution for current ( I ) or voltage ( V ) or power ( P ) in any
component of network is desired, in such cases the whole circuit need to be analyzed each time with the change in
component value. In order to avoid such repeated computation, it is desirable to introduce a method that will not
have to be repeated for each value of variable component. Such tedious computation burden can be avoided
provided the fixed part of such networks could be converted into a very simple equivalent circuit that represents
either in the form of practical voltage sou e k o as The e i ’s oltage sou e VTh = ag itude of oltage
sou e , RTh = i te al esista e of the sou e o i the fo of p a ti al u e t sou e k o as No to ’s u e t
source ( I N = magnitude of current source , RN = int ernal resis tan ce of current source ). Intrue sense, this
conversion will considerably simplify the analysis while the load resistance changes. Although the conversion
technique accomplishes the same goal, it has certain advantages over the techniques that we have learnt in earlier
lessons.

The Transient Response of RC Circuits

The Transient Response (also known as the Natural Response) is the way the circuit responds to energies stored
in storage elements, such as capacitors and inductors. If a capacitor has energy stored within it, then that energy
can be dissipated/absorbed by a resistor. How that energy is dissipated is the Transient Response.

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n this circuit, there is a pulse, a resistor, and a capacitor. Assume here that the pulse goes from 10V down to 0V
att=0.
Assume also that the circuit is in Steady State at t=0-. This implies that the capacitor is 'open' at t=0-. In order for KVL
to be true at t=0- then the capacitor voltage must be 10V at t=0-. This is because there is no current in the circuit,
therefore the voltage across the resistor is zero.

Vc(0-) = Vc(0+) = 10V

Note that since the Transient Response is the circuit's response toenergies stored in storage elements, we will 'kill'
the pulse source. This leaves us with a simple Resitor-Capacitor circuit with an initial 10V on the capacitor at t=0+.

Applying KCL to an RC circuit:

Cdv/dt + V/R = 0
dv/dt + V/(RC) = 0
∫d /V = ∫-1/(RC) dt
ln V = -t/(RC) + K
ln V(t=0) = K
ln Vo = K ←Vo is the voltage on the cap at t=0+.

lnV - ln Vo = -t/(RC)
ln (V/Vo) = -t/(RC)
V/Vo = e-t/(RC)
V(t) = Vo e-t/(RC) ←Vo = 10V in this example.

Note that the speed at which the capacitor discharges from 10V to 0V is determined by the product R×C

When t=RC, the voltage on the capacitor is Vo/e or 37% of it's initial value. We call RC the time constant and the
s ol is τ

Fo a RC i uit, τ=RC

I this pa ti ula i uit τ = RC = Ω×1mF = 0.1 seconds

This means it takes 0.1 seconds for the capacitor to discharge from 10V down to 3.7V.

Here is the sa e i uit as that a o e, e ept that the esisto alue is dou led. This ea s that τ is also dou led.
τ = RC = Ω×1mF = 0.2 seconds
This circuit is twice as slow as the last circuit.

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The Transient Response of RL Circuits

The Transient Response (also known as the Natural Response) is the way the circuit responds to energies stored
in storage elements, such as capacitors and inductors. If an inductor has energy stored within it, then that energy
can be dissipated/absorbed by a resistor. How that energy is dissipated is the Transient Response.

In this circuit, there is a pulse, a resistor, and an inductor. Assume here that the pulse goes from -10V to 0V at t=0.

Assume also that the circuit is in Steady State at t=0-. This implies that the inductor is a 'short' at t=0-. In order for
KCL to be true at t=0- the inductor current must be -1A at t=0-.

IL(0-) = IL(0+) = -1A

Consider the circuit at t=0+, the voltage across the pulse is zero but since I L(0+) = -1A then VR = -10V. Therefore for
KVL to be true VL = +10V.
Therefore VL = +10V is the initial voltage across the inductor.

Note that since the Transient Response is the circuit's response to energies stored in storage elements, we will 'kill'
the pulse source. This leaves us with a simple Resitor-Inductor circuit with an initial -10A going through the inductor
at t=0+.

Applying KVL to an RL circuit:

iR + Ldi/dt = 0
iR/L + di/dt = 0
-iR/L = di/dt
-R/L dt = di/i
∫-R/L dt = ∫di/i
-Rt/L + K = ln i
K = ln i(t=0)
K = ln io
-Rt/L = ln i - K
-Rt/L = ln i - ln io
-Rt/L = ln(i/io)

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i/io = e-Rt/L
i(t) = ioe-Rt/L ←io in this case is -1A

Since the plot on the right is for voltage we will find VL using VL = Ldi/dt
VL = (1H) d[ioe-Rt/L]/dt = (1H) (-10) ioe-Rt/L
VL = -10 e-Rt/L

When t=L/R, the voltage on the inductor is Vo/e or 37% of it's initial value. We call L/R the time constant and again
the s ol is τ

Fo a RL i uit, τ=L/R

I this pa ti ula i uit τ = L/R = H/ Ω = . se o ds

This means it takes 0.1 seconds for the inductor to go from 10V down to 3.7V.

The Complete Response

The Complete Response is the circuit's response to both an independent source as well as energies stored in the
circuit.
A circuit driven by an independent source is said to have a forcing function.
Vcomplete response = Vnatural + Vforced

Here is an RC Circuit with a Forcing Function:

Assume the source is a pulse which goes from0V to 10V at t=0.

If we assume steady state at t=0-, then there is no initial energystored in the circuit.

Intuitively we know that the capacitor is going tocharge up to 10V. When the capacitor gets to 10V then the circuit is
again at steady state.

The pulse is forcing the capacitor to 10V, thus the 10V on the capacitor is called the forced response.

The time it takes the capacitor to charge up to 10V is determined by the time constant. The response of getting to
10V is the transient response.

Network Analysis, ECE, CDGI, Indore Page 20

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