Qualitative Data Analysis and Coding Example

The following is an example of how to engage in a three-step analytic process of coding,

categorizing, and identifying themes within the data presented. Note that different
researchers would come up with different results based on their specific research questions,
literature review findings, and theoretical perspective.
There are many ways cited in the literature to analyze qualitative data. The specific analytic
plan in this exercise involved a constant comparative (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) approach that
included a three-step process of open coding, categorizing, and synthesizing themes. The
constant comparative process involved thinking about how these comments were
interrelated. Intertwined within this three-step process, this example engages in content
analysis techniques as described by Patton (1987) through which coherent and salient
themes and patterns are identified throughout the data. This is reflected in the congruencies
and incongruencies reflected in the memos and relational matrix.
Step 1: Open Coding
Codes for the qualitative data are created through a line-by-line analysis of the comments.
Codes would be based on the research questions, literature review, and theoretical
perspective articulated. Numbering the lines is helpful so that the researcher can make notes
regarding which comments they might like to quote in their report.
It is also useful to include memos to remind yourself of what you were thinking and allow you
to reflect on the initial interpretations as you engage in the next two analytic steps. In
addition, memos will be a reminder of issues that need to be addressed if there is an
opportunity for follow up data collection. This technique allows the researcher time to reflect
on how his/her biases might affect the analysis. Using different coloured text for memos
makes it easy to differentiate thoughts from the data.
Many novice researchers forgo this step. Rather, they move right into arranging the entire
statements into the various categories that have been pre-identified. There are two problems
with the process. First, since the categories have been listed open coding, it is unclear from
where the categories have been derived. Rather, when a researcher uses the open coding
process, he/she looks at each line of text individually and without consideration for the
others. This process of breaking the pieces down and then putting them back together
through analysis ensures that the researcher consider all for the data equally and limits the
bias that might introduced. In addition, if a researcher is coding interviews or other significant
amounts of qualitative data it will likely become overwhelming as the researcher tries to
organize and remember from which context each piece of data came.

Data Code

1. There is not enough space in the building. Building

2. Our desks and equipment are dated and need Resources, Modernization,
replacing. Resources

3. We need a better cleaning service for the building. Services, Building

4. We need more focused recruitment and hiring

Instructional Quality
standards for teachers.

5. We need objective observations and feedback from Leadership Interaction,

the principal. Support, Evaluation
 Uncertainty, Decision Making,
6. We need consistent decisions about school rules.
Responsibilities

7. There are leadership problems. Memo: I’m unclear

about what this is. This could be about
communications, requirements or interaction. What is
meant by problems? How does this fit in with the
other leadership concerns?

8. Nonproductive staff members should not be retained. Responsibilities, Equity

9. Each team of teachers has stereotypes about the

Conflict, Lack of Data
other teams.

Decision Making,
10. Decisions are made on inaccurate information.
Responsibilities

11. We need more opportunities to shift teaching

Lack of Data, Responsibilities
assignments.

12. Our students are confused by different teacher styles Focus on Students, Quality
and expectations. Instruction

13. There is too much gossiping and criticizing. Conflict

Uncertainty, Instructional
14. We are not sure who is teaching which topics.
Clarification.

15. We need a suggestion box. Memo: I think that this

falls under the category of decision making. What the
statement seems to be saying is that this participant
Decision Making
wants more opportunities to share her thoughts. In
essence then, she will become part of the decision
making process.

16. We need more computer terminals. Technology Resources

17. There is a division between the old and new

teachers. Memo: This not only indicates conflict but
might be based on perspective. Is there a duality
Conflict, New versus Veteran
among the new and veteran teachers? Is this where
some of the conflict lies? Are there underlying issues
like pay or respect?

18. There is a lack of support for individual teachers. Support

19. There is favoritism and preferential treatment for

some staff. Memo: Back to line 23. Could this idea Conflict
have support with this statement????

20. We all need more content training, especially about

Quality Instruction
reading instruction.
 21. We need better assessment of teachers so
assignments are more objectively based. Memo:
There seems to be an emerging pattern here that Support, Evaluation, New
there is an issue. Perhaps this belief is trying to get at versus Veteran
the issue of some teachers commitment, pay, perks,
respect, etc.

Quality Instruction, New

22. Training is needed for new teachers
versus Veteran

23. Some teachers are carrying the weight for other

Inequities
teachers.

24. This school is very “turf” oriented. Confict

25. There are a few “favorites” at each grade level. Respect

26. Communication needs improving. Memo: Another

general statement that could be about leadership,
peer interaction, or other issues.

27. Certain grade-levels are put on a pedestal. Equality

Quality Instruction,
28. There are too many tests and assessments required.
Requirements

29. Too much red-tape is needed to get our supplies.

Memo: I coded this as respect because I felt that the Respect, Resources
comment had to do with trust and autonomy.

30. Teachers are often teaching the same things to Requirements, Quality
different grades. Instruction

31. Grade level teams work against each other rather

Inequities, Conflict
than together.

Step 2: Categorizing
To categorize the codes developed in Step 1, list the codes and group them by similarity.
Then, identify an appropriate label for each group. The following table reflects the result of
this activity.

Category Codes

Building
Physical Surroundings Resources Modernization Services
Technology resources

Instructional Quality
Instruction
Requirements

Communication Uncertainty
 Decision Making
Conflict
Lack of data
Instructional clarification

Responsibilities
Equity
Peer Interaction Conflict
New versus Veteran
Respect

Interaction
Leadership Support
Evaluation

Step 3: Identification of Themes

In this step, review the categories as well as the memos to determine the themes that
emerge. In the discussion below, three themes emerged from the synthesis of the
categories. Relevant quotes from the data are included that exemplify the essence of the
themes. These can be used in the discussion of findings. The relational matrix demonstrates
the pattern of thinking of the researcher as they engaged in this step in the analysis. This is
similar to an axial coding strategy.
Note that this set of data is limited and leaves some questions in mind. In a well-developed
study, this would just be a part of the data collected and there would be other data sets
and/or opportunities to clarify/verify some of the interpretations made below. In addition,
since there is no literature review or theoretical statement, there are no reference points from
which to draw interferences in the data. Some assumptions were made for the purposes of
this demonstration in these areas.
Theme 1: Professional Standing
Individual participants have articulated issues related to their own professional position. They
are concerned about what and when they will teach, their performance, and the
respect/prestige that they have within the school. For example, they are concerned about
both their physical environment and the steps that they have to take to ensure that they have
the up-to-date tools that they need. They are also concerned that their efforts are being
acknowledged, sometimes in relation to their peers and their beliefs that they are more
effective.
Selected quotes:
 Some teachers are carrying the weight for other teachers. (demonstrates that they
think that some of their peers are not qualified.)
  We need objective observations and feedback from the principal (demonstrates that
they are looking for acknowledgement for their efforts. Or this could be interpreted
as a belief that their peers who are less qualified should be acknowledged).
 There is a lack of support for individual teachers
Theme 2: Group Dynamics and Collegiality
Rationale: There are groups or clicks that have formed. This seems to be the basis for some
of the conflict. This conflict is closely related to the status and professional standing themes.
This theme however, has more to do with the group issues while the first theme is an
individual perspective. Some teachers and/or subjects are seen as more prestigious than
others. Some of this is related to longevity. This creates jealously and inhibits collegiality.
This affects peer-interaction, instruction, and communication.
Selected quotes:
 Grade level teams work against each other rather than together.
 Each team of teachers has stereotypes about the other teams.
 There is a division between the old and new teachers
Theme 3: Leadership Issues
Rationale: There seems to be a lack of leadership and shared understanding of the general
direction in which the school will go. This is also reflected in a lack of two-way
communications. There doesn’t seem to be information being offered by the leadership of
the school, nor does there seem to be an opportunity for individuals to share their thoughts,
let alone decision making. There seems to be a lack of intervention in the conflict from
leadership.
Selected quotes:
 Decisions are made on inaccurate information.
 We need consistent decisions about school rules
References
Glaser, B.G., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for
qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications.