LECTURE 2: DC SERIES & PARALLEL CIRCUITS

DC Circuits
• The closed path followed by direct current (d.c.) is called a d.c. circuit.
• Linear circuit. A linear circuit is one whose parameters (e.g. resistances)
are constant i.e. they do not change with current or voltage.
• Non-linear circuit. A non-linear circuit is one whose parameters (e.g.
resistances) change with voltage or current.
• Bilateral circuit. A bilateral circuit is one whose properties are the same
in either direction. For example, transmission line is a bilateral circuit
because it can be made to perform its function equally well in either
direction.
• Active element. An active element is one which supplies electrical energy
to the circuit. Thus batteries are active elements because they supply
energy to the circuit.
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 DC Circuits
• Passive element. A passive element is one which receives electrical
energy and then either converts it into heat (resistance) or stores in an
electric field (capacitance) or magnetic field (inductance). These passive
elements (i.e. resistances in this case) receive energy from the active
elements and convert it into heat.
• Node. A node of a network is an equipotential surface at which two or
more circuit elements are joined.
• Junction. A junction is that point in a network where three or more circuit
elements are joined.
• Loop. A loop is any closed path of a network in which current can flow.
• Mesh. A mesh is the most elementary form of a loop and cannot be
further divided into other loops.

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 Nodes, Branches, and Loops

• A node is a junction of
connecting wires.
• Every point on a node is at Branch Branch
the same potential (same Node Node Node
voltage).
Loop
• A branch just another Branch

name for any circuit Branch Mesh Mesh Branch

element between two
nodes.

• A loop is a closed path that Node

begins and ends at the
same node.

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 Series DC Circuits
• The d.c. circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that there is
only one path for current to flow is called a d.c. series circuit.

100Ω

30V 50Ω

I=?

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 Series Circuits
• Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 ohms connected in series across a
battery of V volts as shown in Fig. (i). Obviously, there is only one path
for current I i.e. current is same throughout the circuit. By Ohm’s law,
voltage across the various resistances is:

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Characteristics of Series Circuits

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 Voltage Dividers
• A potential divider is the simplest way of producing a source of lower e.m.f.
from a source of higher e.m.f., and is the basic operating mechanism of the
potentiometer, a measuring device for accurately measuring potential
differences.

40Ω

10V

10Ω Vout

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Voltage Dividers

R1

VS

R2 Vout

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Voltage Dividers

R1

VS

R2 RL

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 Parallel Circuits
• When one end of each resistance is joined to a common point and the other end
of each resistance is joined to another common point so that there are as many
paths for current flow as the number of resistances, it is called a parallel circuit.

150Ω 100Ω
30V
Ohm’s Law

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 Parallel Circuits
• Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 ohms connected in parallel across a battery of V volts as
shown in Fig. (i). The total current I divides into three parts: I1 flowing through R1, I2 flowing
through R2 and I3 flowing through R3. Obviously, the voltage across each resistance is the same
(i.e. V volts in this case ) and there are as many current paths as the number of resistances. By
Ohm’s law, current through each resistance is:

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Parallel Circuits

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 Main Features of Parallel Circuits
The following are the characteristics of a parallel circuit :
• The voltage across each resistor is the same.
• The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance.
• The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of currents in its parallel branches.
• The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistances.
• As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total resistance of the circuit is
decreased.
• The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest of the resistances.
• If n resistors, each of resistance R, are connected in parallel, then total resistance RP
= R/n.
• The conductance are additive.
• The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in
the individual resistances.

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 Two Resistances in Parallel
• A frequent special case of parallel resistors is a circuit that contains two resistances
in parallel. As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total resistance of
the circuit is decreased.

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 Advantages of Parallel Circuits
• The most useful property of a parallel circuit is the fact that potential difference
has the same value between the terminals of each branch of parallel circuit. This
feature of the parallel circuit offers the following advantages :

• (i) The appliances rated for the same voltage but different powers can be
connected in parallel without disturbing each other’s performance. Thus a 230V,
230W TV receiver can be operated independently in parallel with a 230V, 40W
lamp.

• (ii) If a break occurs in any one of the branch circuits, it will have no effect on
other branch circuits.

• Due to above advantages, electrical appliances in homes are connected in

parallel. We can switch on or off any light or appliance without affecting other
lights or appliances.

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 Current Dividers
• Can only be applied were current is to be distributed across different
branches of the electrical circuit.

RT

Iout

IS RX R1 R2

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Current Divider

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 D.C. Series-Parallel Circuit
• This circuit is a combination of series and parallel circuits. A simple example
of such a circuit is illustrated in Fig. Note that R2 and R3 are connected in
parallel with each other and that both together are connected in series with
R1.
• One simple rule to solve such circuits is to first reduce the parallel branches to
an equivalent series branch and then solve the circuit as a simple series
circuit.

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 Applications of Series-Parallel Circuits
• The Series-parallel circuits combine the advantages of both series and parallel circuits
and minimize their disadvantages. Generally, less copper is required and a smaller size
wire can be used. Such circuits are used whenever various types of circuits must be fed
from the same power supply. A few common applications of series-parallel circuits are
given below:

• (i) In an automobile, the starting, lighting and ignition circuits are all individual circuits
joined to make a series-parallel circuit drawing its power from one battery.

• (ii) Radio and television receivers contain a number of separate circuits such as tuning
circuits, r.f. amplifiers, oscillator, detector and picture tube circuits. Individually, they
may be simple series or parallel circuits. However, when the receiver is considered as a
whole, the result is a series-parallel circuit.

• (iii) Power supplies are connected in series to get a higher voltage and in parallel to get
a higher current.
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 Practice Question
• Qn. For the passive circuits shown below, calculate their equivalent
resistances. [10Ω, 2.83Ω]

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 Practice Question
• Qn. Six resistors are connected as shown in Fig. below. If a battery
having an e.m.f. of 24 volts and internal resistance of 1 Ω is connected
to the terminals A and B, find (i) the current from the battery, (ii) p.d.
across 8 Ω and 4 Ω resistors and (iii) the current taken from the
battery if a conductor of negligible resistance is connected in parallel
with 8 Ω resistor.

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Solution

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 Solution
Qn: Two resistors R1 = 2.5kΩ and R2 = 4kΩ are joined in series and connected to a 100V supply.
The voltage drops across R1 and R2 are measured successively by a voltmeter having a resistance
of 50kΩ. Find the sum of two readings.

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 Practice Question

• Qn 1: A circuit consists of four 100 W lamps connected in parallel across a

230 V supply. Inadvertently, a voltmeter has been connected in series
with the lamps. The resistance of the voltmeter is 1500 Ω and that of the
lamps under the conditions stated is six times their value then burning
normally. Draw the circuit and determine the reading of the voltmeter ?
• Qn 2: Find RAB in the circuit shown in Fig. below [22.5Ω]

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 Practice Question

• Qn 1: A battery of unknown e.m.f. is connected across resistances as

shown below. The voltage drop across the 8 Ω resistor is 20 V. What will
be the current reading in the ammeter? What is the e.m.f. of the battery?

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 Voltage and Current Sources
 The term voltage source is used to describe a source of energy which
establishes a potential difference across its terminals.
 Most of the sources encountered in everyday life are voltage sources e.g.,
batteries, d.c. generators, alternators etc.
 The term current source is used to describe a source of energy that provides a
current e.g., collector circuits of transistors.
 Voltage and current sources are called active elements because they provide
electrical energy to a circuit
 An ideal voltage source (also called constant-voltage source) is one that
maintains a constant terminal voltage, no matter how much current is drawn
from it.
 An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance.

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 Voltage and Current Sources

 A real or non-ideal voltage source has low but finite internal resistance
(Rint) that causes its terminal voltage to decrease when load current is
increased and vice-versa.

 An ideal current source or constant current source is one which will supply
the same current to any resistance (load) connected across its terminals. An
ideal current source has infinite internal resistance.

 A real or non-ideal current source has high but finite internal resistance
(Rint). Therefore, the load current (IL) will change as the value of load
resistance (RL) changes.

 A real current source can be represented by an ideal current source (I) in

parallel with its internal resistance (Rint)
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 Voltage to current source conversion. Source Transformation

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 Current to voltage source conversion
Fig. (i) shows a real current source whereas Fig.(ii) shows its equivalent voltage
source. Note that series resistance Rint of the voltage source has the same value
as the parallel resistance of the original current source. The value of voltage of
the equivalent voltage source is E = ISRint where IS is the magnitude of current of
the current source.

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