Data processing

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INDEXES
An index is a copy of selected column of data from a table that is design to enable a quick
search.
Index are powerful tools used in the background of database to speed up querying

Customer ID name address city state

001 Halima 5 dantata str. ikeja lagos
002 Kamal 12 jalo str. Zaria Kaduna
003 Nurain 6 Ali Avenu Benin Edo

An index table or file consist of records called index entries.

Search key Pointer

Search key; for sorting the row

Pointer; indicate the actual data in the table. Index are automatically created when primary key
and unique constraints are defined on the tale column
Classification of index
i. Clustered
ii. Non-clustered index
Clustered index; is arranged so that the ordering of data record is same as the ordering of data
entries. It applies to a single table.
Non-clustered index; its order does not determine the order of rows/column. Each of the key value
entry has a pointer to the data row that contains the key value. Example suppose student record is
sorted by age and if the additional index on GPA field is included, it is non-clustered index.
Class work
Is it true that clustered index can be stored in sequence? (prove your answer)
Assignment
What is primary index?

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Types of Indexes
1. Bitmap Index
 Explanation: Bitmap indexes use a series of bits to represent data, which is particularly
efficient for columns with a small number of distinct values (e.g., gender, yes/no fields).
 Example: If a table has a column for gender with values ‘Male’ and ‘Female,’ a bitmap
index would create two bitmaps to represent these values.
 Use Case: Ideal for read-heavy
 databases with infrequent updates.

2. Dense Index
 Explanation: In a dense index, every search key value in the database is included in the
index and points to a data record.
 Use Case: Efficient for smaller databases, as it requires more space but provides fast access.
3. Sparse Index
 Explanation: In a sparse index, not every search key is included. It indexes only a subset of
search keys, and each entry points to a block of data.
 Use Case: Useful when the database is very large because it uses less space than a dense
index but requires more steps to find some data.
CLASS WORK
Differentiate Between Dense and Sparse Indexes
assignment
what is data security?

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Data processing
indexes
Differences Between Bitmap, Dense, and Sparse Indexes:
 Bitmap indexes use bits to represent data and are efficient for columns with limited unique
values.
 Dense indexes have an entry for every data value, ensuring faster retrieval.
 Sparse indexes store fewer entries but save storage space.
Data Organization for Efficient Retrieval
Explains how data entries are organized in an index to support efficient retrieval:
 In an index, the key values (such as names, IDs, or dates) are stored along with pointers to
their actual data location.
 When a query is made, the system searches the index instead of scanning the entire dataset,
which drastically improves speed.
 Tree Structure: Many indexes are organized in a hierarchical structure called a B-tree,
which allows for quick searching, insertion, and deletion of records.

Primary and Secondary Indexes

Primary Index
 Explanation: The primary index is built on the primary key of a table. This key uniquely
identifies each record, and the index provides a fast way to access the data.
o Example: In a student database, the student ID might be the primary key, and the
primary index would be built around this ID.
 Features:
o The primary index is automatically created when you define the primary key.

o It is typically a clustered index, meaning the data is physically stored in the order of
the primary key.
Secondary Index
 Explanation: A secondary index is any index created on columns other than the primary
key. It helps improve the speed of queries on non-key columns.
 o Example: In the student database, you might have a secondary index on the "last
name" column to make it easier to find students by last name.
 Features:
o Secondary indexes are typically non-clustered, meaning the physical order of the
data remains unchanged.

Class work
Give one difference between primary and secondary index?
Assignment
Mention 3 methods of ensuring access control?
Week2contact1
Definition Data Security
Data security involves protecting data from threats such as Unauthorized access, Theft, Corruption,
Deletion

BENEFITS OF DATA SECURITY

1. It keeps your information safe
2. It gives you a competitive edge
3. It keeps your reputation clean
4. Prevent future expenses in case of lost or damage on data
DATABASE SECURITY
Database security is the protection of database against accidental, passive, intentional loss,
destruction or misuse.
DESCRIPTION OF ACCESS CONTROL
Access control refers to the method of regulating who or what can view or use resources in a
computing environment. There are several types of access control, each serving different security
needs
Class work
What will be the consequences of poor access control?
Assignment
List five methods of access control?
Contact 2

Methods of ensuring access control

Password Security
Passwords are the most common form of access control. Emphasize the importance of strong
passwords and changing them regularly.
Characteristics of a Strong Password:
I. At least 8 characters long
II. Includes numbers, special characters, uppercase and lowercase letters
III. Avoids obvious choices like "12345" or "password"
Biometrics
Authentication based on biological characteristics like fingerprints, facial recognition, or retina
scans.
To be continued
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENCRYPTION AND BACKUP

Aspect Encryption Backup

Definition The process of converting data into a coded The process of creating a copy
format to prevent unauthorized access. of data to restore in case of loss
or corruption.
Purpose To ensure data privacy and security by To create a redundant copy of
making it unreadable to unauthorized users. data for recovery in case of data
loss,
 Data Only accessible with a decryption key. Original data can be accessed
Access normally; backup is only used if
needed.
Primary Security and confidentiality of data. Data recovery and availability.
Focus

Authentication
Authentication is the process of verifying a user's identity before granting access.
Examples of Authentication Methods:
Single-Factor Authentication (SFA): Using one form of verification, such as a password.
Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Requires two or more verification methods, such as a
password and a fingerprint scan.

Class work
What is decryption?
Assignment
State the types of encryptions?

Contact 3
Creating dB
Pass wording
Using index

Week3
ROLES OF A DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR (DBA) IN ENSURING DATABASE SECURITY
A Database Administrator (DBA) is responsible for managing the operation and security of a
database system. Their primary role in ensuring database security includes the following
responsibilities:
User Access Control: A DBA manages who can access the database by creating and controlling user
accounts. They implement authentication mechanisms such as usernames and passwords to verify
the identity of users and assign specific privileges to control access levels. Only authorized users
should be able to view, modify, or delete data.
Data Backup and Recovery: The DBA ensures that backups are regularly made to prevent data loss
due to hardware failure, software malfunctions, or cyberattacks. In case of a disaster, they are
responsible for recovering the database to its previous state using these backups.
Encryption: DBAs apply data encryption techniques to secure sensitive information stored in the
database.
Database Patching and Updates: To avoid vulnerabilities, the DBA regularly updates the database
management software with security patches released by the vendor. These updates often fix bugs or
security loopholes that can be exploited by attackers.
Monitoring and Auditing: A DBA regularly monitors database activity to detect suspicious
behavior, unauthorized access, or potential threats. They also conduct audits to review how data is
being accessed and used, ensuring that security policies are being followed.
COMMON SECURITY THREATS TO DATABASES
Databases face numerous security threats, some of the most common include:
SQL Injection Attacks: This occurs when an attacker inputs malicious SQL statements into a query
field in a web application. If not properly validated, this can allow attackers to gain access to or
manipulate the database.
Unauthorized Access: When users or attackers gain access to a database without proper
permissions, they can view, steal, or manipulate data, leading to data breaches.
Data Breaches: Data breaches happen when sensitive information, such as customer details or
financial data, is exposed to unauthorized individuals, leading to identity theft, fraud, and other
criminal activities.
Malware and Ransomware Attacks: Malware, such as viruses or ransomware, can corrupt or
encrypt database files, making them unusable unless a ransom is paid. These types of attacks can
cripple an organization’s operations.
Internal Threats: Employees or users with access to the database may misuse their privileges to
alter or steal data. This kind of threat is particularly dangerous because it comes from trusted
sources.

BEST PRACTICES FOR DATABASE SECURITY

To ensure the security of databases, a DBA should follow several best practices:
Principle of Least Privilege (PoLP): Grant users the minimum level of access needed to perform
their duties. This limits the risk of data exposure or modification by unauthorized individuals.
Strong Password Policies: Enforce the use of strong, unique passwords for accessing the database.
Passwords should be changed regularly, and multi-factor authentication (MFA) should be used to
add an extra layer of security.
Regular Backups: Ensure that data is regularly backed up and that these backups are stored
securely. Regular testing of backup systems is also necessary to verify that they work when needed.
Data Encryption: Sensitive data, such as personal or financial information, should always be
encrypted both at rest (while stored) and in transit (when being transferred across networks).
Regular Auditing and Monitoring: Implement auditing tools that track and log all database
activities. Regularly review these logs to identify any unauthorized access or anomalies that could
indicate a security threat.

Patching and Updating: Keep database software up-to-date with the latest patches to protect
against known vulnerabilities. Failing to do so could expose the system to exploits.
Class work
List five security threat to database?
Assignment
Research and explain the concept of SQL injection and how it can be prevented in database
management
Unit two

DEFINITION OF ENCRYPTION AND ITS PURPOSE

Encryption is the process of converting readable data (plaintext) into an unreadable or scrambled
format (ciphertext) using a specific algorithm and an encryption key. This transformation ensures
that only authorized individuals who have the decryption key can access the original information.
The purpose of encryption is to protect sensitive data from unauthorized access, especially during
transmission over the internet or when stored in databases. Encryption is used to ensure
confidentiality, integrity, and security of information, making it difficult for unauthorized users to
intercept or manipulate the data.
Confidentiality: Encryption ensures that only authorized recipients can read the data.
Integrity: It protects data from being altered or tampered with during transmission.
Authentication: In some cases, encryption can verify the identity of the sender to the recipient.

DEFINITION OF DECRYPTION AND ITS RELATION TO ENCRYPTION

Decryption is the reverse process of encryption. It involves converting the unreadable ciphertext
back into its original, readable form (plaintext) using a decryption key.
Decryption works in conjunction with encryption to ensure that only authorized individuals, who
possess the correct decryption key, can access the encrypted data. Without the decryption key, the
ciphertext remains unintelligible and secure from unauthorized access.
The relationship between encryption and decryption is essential in securing communications and
data transfers. While encryption secures the data, decryption allows authorized users to recover
and use the information in its original form.

EXAMPLES OF WHERE ENCRYPTION IS USED

Encryption is widely used in various applications and industries to protect sensitive data. Some
common examples include:
Messaging Applications: End-to-end encryption is used in messaging apps like WhatsApp and
Telegram to secure text messages, voice notes, and video calls. This ensures that only the sender and
receiver can read or listen to the messages.
Online Banking and E-commerce: Websites that handle financial transactions, such as online
banking or shopping websites, use encryption (e.g., HTTPS/SSL) to protect sensitive data like credit
card numbers and personal information from being intercepted by hackers.
Email Communication: Email encryption is used to secure the content of emails, ensuring that
private information such as passwords or confidential documents cannot be accessed by
unauthorized individuals during transmission.
Cloud Storage: Services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and OneDrive use encryption to protect files
and data stored in the cloud, ensuring they are secure even if the storage server is compromised.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): VPNs use encryption to secure internet traffic, making it difficult
for hackers or unauthorized entities to intercept and view online activities.

Class work
Write two practical applications of encryption.
Assignment
Differentiate between public key and private key?
Correction

public key is used to encrypt data while the private key can be used to decrypt data

WEEK 4
Crash Recovery
Crash recovery is the way a database fixes itself after something goes wrong, like when the
computer crashes or loses power. It helps make sure no data is lost, and the database goes back to
how it was before the problem happened. Crash recovery makes sure all the work done before the
crash is either finished correctly or undone if it wasn’t finished.
Functions of Uncle Pass
Uncle Pass helps the database recover after a crash by checking that everything that was completed
is saved, and anything that wasn’t finished is removed. Think of it like a cleaner who makes sure
only the correct information stays and everything else is cleaned up.
Log Sequence Number (LSN)
A Log Sequence Number (LSN) is like a serial number for every action that happens in the
database. Each change or update gets its own number, which helps the database know what
happened and in what order. If the system crashes, the LSN helps the database figure out what
needs to be fixed, making sure everything is in the correct order.
CLASS WORK
List five security threat to database?
ASSIGNMENT

Research and explain the concept of SQL injection and how it can be prevented in database
management?

Unit 2
Backup
A backup is a copy of the database that is saved at a specific time, so that if something goes wrong,
you can restore your data from that backup. There are different types of backups:
 Full Back up: This is a copy of the entire database.
 Incremental Backup: This only saves changes made after the last backup.
 Differential Backup: This saves all changes made after the last full backup.
Backups are very important because they allow us to recover data if the system crashes.
Importance of Backup
Here are the main reasons why backups are important:
1. Data Protection: Backups ensure that important data is not permanently
2. Disaster Recovery: the system to be restored to a previous state, minimizing downtime and
losses.
3. Business Continuity: Backups help businesses quickly recover and continue operations after
a data loss incident.
4. Protection Against Ransomware and Viruses
5. Version Control: By keeping multiple backups, you can restore the database to a specific
time or version.
6. Minimizes Downtime: Having up-to-date backups allows faster recovery,

Write-Ahead Logging (WAL) Protocol

The Write-Ahead Logging (WAL) protocol is a rule that says before any changes are made
to the database, the database first writes them down in a log. This makes sure that even if
the system crashes, we can use the log to bring back all the correct changes. WAL is like
writing a note before you do something so that if you forget, you can look back and
remember what to do.
CLASS WORK
List the types of backups?
ASSIGNMENT

What is transaction in database?

Unit 3
Transactions
A transaction is a small unit of work that happens in a database. Think of it like a task that needs to
be completed. For example, when you save a document or make a payment, that's a transaction. In
databases, transactions must follow a rule called ACID:
 Atomicity: Either everything in the transaction happens, or nothing happens.
 Consistency: The database must stay correct before and after the transaction.
 Isolation: Transactions should not interfere with each other.
 Durability: Once a transaction is finished, it stays saved, even if the system crashes.
These rules help make sure that the database stays reliable and accurate.
 Techniques of Crash Recovery
There are several techniques used to recover from a crash in a database:
 1. Logging: Logs keep track of all changes made to the database. If a crash happens, the
logs help determine what was completed and what needs to be undone. The most important
logs are:
o Redo Log: Replays changes to make sure the database has all the correct
information.
o Undo Log: Reverts changes that were not fully completed before the crash.

 2. Checkpointing: The database takes snapshots at specific times (called checkpoints), saving
the current state. If a crash occurs, the recovery process can start from the last checkpoint,
which speeds up the process because it doesn’t have to go back to the very beginning.
 3. Roll-back and Roll-forward:
o Rollback: This happens when a transaction fails and the database needs to undo all
changes made during that transaction. It returns the database to its previous state.
o Roll forward: This technique is used when the database uses a log to reapply
changes that were interrupted during a crash, ensuring that the database gets back
to its correct state.
Importance of Crash Recovery
Crash recovery is extremely important for several reasons:
 Data Integrity: It ensures that the data in the database remains correct and reliable, even
after a failure.
 Prevents Data Loss: Crash recovery helps prevent data from being permanently lost, which
is crucial for businesses and organizations that rely on accurate data.
 Ensures Continuity: By quickly restoring the database to a usable state, crash recovery
allows systems to get back up and running, minimizing downtime and keeping operations
smooth.
 Maintains Consistency: Recovery processes ensure that the database remains consistent,
meaning it only contains valid, up-to-date information, even after an unexpected crash.
 1. Define Parallel Databases:
2. Understand the Need for Parallel Databases:
3. Identify the Characteristics of Parallel Databases:
4. Describe the Benefits of Parallel Databases:
5. Explain the Architecture of Parallel Databases:
6. Differentiate Between the Types of Parallel Architectures:
7. Discuss Data Partitioning in Parallel Databases:
8. Examine the Challenges of Parallel Databases:
9. Evaluate the Role of Parallel Databases in Modern Systems:
Definition of Parallel Databases
Parallel databases use multiple processors to perform database tasks concurrently. This setup
allows for faster query processing and efficient handling of large data sets by distributing tasks
across processors.
Why Parallel Databases?
Parallel databases are used to improve performance by reducing query processing time. They allow
multiple tasks to run at the same time, speeding up data retrieval and analysis, especially in large-
scale systems.
Characteristics of Parallel Databases
Parallel databases are characterized by:
  Concurrency: Multiple queries processed simultaneously.
 Data Partitioning: Dividing data into smaller parts for faster processing.
 Scalability: Ability to grow by adding more processors.
Class work
Define parallel database in your own words?
Assignment
Study the about the architecture of parallel database on page….?

Architecture of Parallel Databases

There are three types of architectures:
 Shared-Nothing: Each processor has its own memory and disk.
  Shared-Disk: Processors share the same disk but have separate memory.

 Shared-Memory: Processors share both memory and disk.

Differences in Parallel Architectures

 Shared-Nothing offers the best scalability.
 Shared-Disk provides easy access to shared data.
 Shared-Memory is the fastest for communication but less scalable.
Class work
 If you want to enjoy high speed information sharing which parallel database is the best
plug?

Benefits of Parallel Databases

 Increased Speed: Faster query processing.
 Scalability: Supports growing data needs.
 Fault Tolerance: System continues running even if one processor fails.

Role of Parallel Databases in Modern Systems

Parallel databases are vital for handling large datasets in areas like:
 Big Data Analytics: Processing vast amounts of data quickly.
 Scientific Research: Managing large experimental data sets.
Class work
Identify one similarity between the architectures?
Assignment
Which of the parallel database architecture is resizable? (use any AI tool but paraphrase
your answers to avoid plagiarism)

Lesson Objectives:
1. Define Distributed Databases:
2. Explain the Need for Distributed Databases:
3. Identify the Characteristics of Distributed Databases:
4. Describe Data Fragmentation in Distributed Databases:
5. Discuss Data Replication in Distributed Databases:
6. Explain the Architecture of Distributed Databases:
7. Discuss the Challenges of Distributed Databases:
8. Examine Data Synchronization in Distributed Databases:
9. Explore Real-World Applications of Distributed Databases:
 Distributed Databases (SSS3)
Definition of Distributed Databases:
A distributed database is a collection of databases stored across different physical locations
that communicate via a network. These databases operate independently but appear as a
single system to users.
Need for Distributed Databases:
Distributed databases are used to ensure data availability and provide fault tolerance by
storing data in multiple locations. This setup allows for continuous access to data even if one
location fails and is particularly useful for large-scale organizations.
Characteristics of Distributed Databases:
 Data Distribution: Data is stored across multiple sites, improving access and reducing
network load.
 Autonomy: Each site can manage its database independently, but data can still be shared
across the system.
 Network-Based: A network connects the databases, ensuring data can be accessed and
managed from different locations.
Class work
Can you use a distributed database offline?
Assignment
What is data replication? (use any AI tool but paraphrase your answers to avoid
plagiarism)

Data Fragmentation in Distributed Databases:

Data fragmentation involves splitting data into smaller pieces, or fragments, and
distributing them across different locations. Fragmentation improves query performance by
allowing data to be processed locally, reducing the need to transfer large amounts of data
between sites.
Data Replication in Distributed Databases:
Data replication involves storing copies of data across multiple locations. Replication
ensures data availability in case of failure at one site and provides redundancy, making the
system more reliable.
Architecture of Distributed Databases:
 There are several architectures used in distributed databases:
 Client-Server Architecture: Central servers store data, while clients access the server over a
network.
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture: All nodes in the network have equal authority, and data is shared
between them.
 Multi-Tier Architecture: This architecture includes multiple layers (e.g., presentation, logic,
and data layers) to manage database functions more efficiently.
Class Work
What is a server?
Assignment
Sketch the diagram 3 diagrams for distributed database architecture?
Challenges of Distributed Databases:
Some challenges include:
 Data Consistency: Ensuring that changes made in one location are reflected across all sites.
 Network Latency: Slow networks can delay data transmission between locations.
 Transaction Management: Maintaining atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability
(ACID properties) across multiple sites is complex.
Data Synchronization in Distributed Databases:
Data synchronization ensures that all copies of data across the distributed database system
are consistent. Techniques like two-phase commit and timestamping help maintain
consistency, ensuring all sites have up-to-date data.
Applications of Distributed Databases:
Distributed databases are used in various industries:
 E-Commerce: To handle online transactions across different regions.
 Banking: For managing accounts and transactions across branches.
 Global Enterprises: Distributed databases help multinational companies manage data
across different locations efficiently.
Class work
Mention two e-commerce platforms you know?
Assignment
What is a multi-national company mention five of them?