Quantitative and Qualitative
research
Qualitative Research
• Qualitative Research – “collection, analysis, and interpretation of
comprehensive narrative and visual data to gain insights into a
particular phenomenon of interest (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009: 7)
Research Topic Statement
• Qualitative research topic statement provide a more “big picture”
idea.
• Qualitative research methods:
• are concerned with opinions, feelings and experiences
• describes social phenomena as they occur naturally - no attempt is made to
manipulate the situation - just understand and describe
• understanding is sought by taking a holistic perspective / approach, rather
than looking at a set of variables
• qualitative research data is used to help us to develop concepts and theories
that help us to understand the social world - which is an inductive approach
to the development of theory.
• Qualitative data is collected through direct encounters i.e. through interview
or observation and is rather time consuming
Hypotheses and Qualitative Studies
• In a qualitative study, the inductive process is used to develop a
guiding hypothesis.
• Inductive Reasoning – “developing generalizations based on
observation of a limited number of related events or experiences”
(Gay, Mills & Airasian, p. 4)
• Thus, qualitative studies are focused more on observing over time
which will likely change the guiding hypothesis into something new.
• Research questions are formulated and narrowed in scope as time
progresses giving the researcher data to analyze.
Data collection in qualitative research
• Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involves:
• Direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis
• Or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting
• Qualitative research data collection methods are time consuming, therefore
data is usually collected from a smaller population
• The benefits of the qualitative approach is that the information is richer and
has a deeper insight into the phenomenon under study
• The main methods for collecting qualitative data are:
• Individual interviews
• Focus groups
• Observations
• Action Research
Interviews
• Types of interviews :
• Unstructured or 'depth' or 'in depth' interviews
• They have very little structure at all
• The interviewer may just go with the aim of discussing a limited number of
topics, sometimes as few as just one or two
• The interviewer may frame the interview questions based on the interviewee
and his/her previous response
• This allows the discussion to cover areas in great detail
• They involve the researcher wanting to know or find out more about a
specific topic without there being a structure or a preconceived plan or
expectation as to how they will deal with the topic
• Semi structured or focused interviews
• A series of open ended questions based on the topic areas the researcher
wants to cover
• A series of broad questions to ask and may have some prompts to help the
interviewee
• 'The open ended nature of the question defines the topic under investigation
but provides opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to discuss
some topics in more detail'
• Semi structured interviews allow the researcher to promote or encourage
the interviewee if they are looking for more information or find what they
are saying interesting
• This method gives the researcher the freedom to probe the interviewee to
elaborate or to follow a new line of inquiry introduced by what the
interviewee is saying
• Work best when the interviewed has a number of areas he/she wants to be
sure to be addressing
• Structured
• The interviewed asks the respondent the same questions in the same way
• A tightly structured schedule is used
• The questions may be phrased in order that a limited range of responses may
be given - i.e. 'Do you rate our services as very good, good or poor'
• A researcher needs to consider whether a questionnaire or structured
interview is more appropriate
• 'If the interview schedule is too tightly structured this may not enable the
phenomena under investigation to be explored in terms of either breadth or
depth.'
• Qualitative interviews should be fairly informal and participants feel
they are taking part in a conversation or discussion rather than in a
formal question and answer situation.
• There is skill required and involved in successful qualitative research
approaches - which requires careful consideration and planning
• Good quality qualitative research involves:
• Thought
• Preparation
• The development of the interview schedule
• Conducting and analysing the interview data with care and consideration
Focus groups
• The use of focus groups is sometimes used when it is better to obtain
information from a group rather than individuals.
• Group interviews can be used when:
• Limited resources (time, manpower, finances)
• The phenomena being researched requires a collective discussion in order to
understand the circumstances, behaviour or opinions
• Greater insights may be developed of the group dynamic - or cause and
consequence
• Characteristics of a focus group:
• Recommended size of the sample group is 6 - 10 people
• Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and
macro view of the investigation. A minimum of three focus groups is
recommended for best practice approaches
• Members of the focus group should have something in common which is
important to the investigation
• The aim of the focus group is to make use of participants' feelings,
perceptions and opinions
• This method requires the researcher to use a range of skills:
• group skills
• facilitating
• moderating
• listening/observing
• analysis
Observation
• Observation may take place in natural settings and involve the researcher taking
lengthy and descriptive notes of what is happening.
• Limitations with observation include:
• Change in people's behaviour when they know they are being observed
• The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking notes
• The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or misunderstand what has
been observed
• Strengths of observation
• Can offer a flavour for what is happening
• Can give an insight into the bigger picture
• Can demonstrate sub-groups
• Can be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research
• Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information about certain
things - for example, how people actually behave
• Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying information provided in
face to face encounters.'
• People or environment can be observed.
• Techniques for collecting data through observation
• Written descriptions
• The researcher makes written descriptions of the people, situations or
environment
• Video recording
• Allows the researcher to also record notes
• Limitations may include people acting unnaturally towards the camera or others
avoiding the camera
• The camera may not always see everything
• Photographs and artefacts
• Useful when there is a need to collect observable information or phenomena
such as buildings, neighbourhoods, dress and appearance
• Artefacts include objects of significance - memorabilia, instruments, tools etc
• Documentation
• Any and all kinds of documentation may be used to provide information - a
local paper, information on a notice board, administrative policies and
procedures...etc previous research, even
Action research
• Action Research doesn't just involve asking about it, it involves doing
it.
• Action Research is a framework that is:
• Collaborative
• There is a practical intervention made - i.e. you do something to make a
change or intervention in a situation that you research
• The researcher will be actively involved in the planned intervention
Quantitative Research
• Quantitative Research – “Collection and analysis of numerical data to
describe, explain, predict, or control phenomena of interest
• If using a quantitative method, a topic statement will be written. The
statement identifies variables, relationships between multiple
variables, and participants.
Hypotheses in Quantitative Studies
• Again, the hypothesis is stated before the study takes place, and the
researcher constructs them according to theory and literary
knowledge.
• A sound hypothesis has four main criteria.
• a hypothesis may have similarities with previous findings.
• it has to be realistic.
• a researcher must be as clear as possible when defining how variables are
linked.
• a good hypothesis can be tested in a timely manner.
Data collection in quantitative research
• Questionnaires or social surveys are used to collect standardised data from large numbers
of
• In Data Collection in Context (1981), Ackroyd and Hughes identify three types of survey:
• Factual surveys: used to collect descriptive information, i.e. the government census
• Attitude surveys - i.e. an opinion poll - rather than attempting to gather descriptive information, an
attitude survey will attempt to collect and measure people's attitudes and opinions, i.e. 4 out of 5
people believe...
• Explanatory survey - goes beyond the collection of data and aims to test theories and hypotheses
and / or to produce new theory.
• Researchers usually use questionnaires or surveys in order that they can make
generalisations, therefore, the surveys are usually based on carefully selected samples.
• Questionnaires consist of the same set of questions that are asked in the same order and in
the same way in order that the same information can be gathered.
• Questionnaires can be:
• Filled in by the participant
• Asked in a structured and formal way by an interviewer
• Postal questionnaire can be used, whereby a questionnaire is posted to the sample group
and returned to the researcher by a specified time and date
• Telephone questionnaire
• Email questionnaire
Developing a Questionnaire
• The process of developing a questionnaire involves the following four
steps:
• Choosing the questions by operationalising concepts, which involves
translating abstract ideas into concrete questions that will be measureable
(i.e......class, power, family, religion....add some sort of example)
• Operationalising concepts involves a set of choices regarding the following
units of analysis
• units that can be analysed:
• individuals (i.e. students, voters, workers)
• groups (families, gangs)
• organisations (churches, army, corporations)
• social artefacts (buildings, cars, pottery, etc)
• points of focus
• treatment of the dimension of time
Questionnaire questions
• Questions in the questionnaire can then be:
• Open ended (more difficult to extract quantifiable data)
• This form of question requires the researcher to code the answers. Coding identifies a
number of categories in which people have responded.
• Closed
• Fixed-choice
• Likert scale - where participants are given a range of options, i.e. agree,
strongly agree...
• the difficulty or negative of all of the close and fixed are that
participants may be forced into an answer or may not be able to
qualify or explain what they mean by what they have answered
Mixed research
collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two
forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve
philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks.
The core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the integration of
qualitative and quantitative data yields additional insight beyond the
information provided by either the quantitative or qualitative data
alone.
