The occupation of Istanbul (Turkish: İstanbul’un işgali) or occupation of Constantinople; (12

November 1918 – 4 October 1923), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, by British, French, Italian,
and Greek forces, took place in accordance with the Armistice of Mudros, which ended Ottoman
participation in the First World War. The first French troops entered the city on 12 November 1918,
followed by British troops the next day. The Italian troops landed in Galata on 7 February 1919.[3]
Allied troops occupied zones based on the existing divisions of Istanbul and set up an Allied military
administration early in December 1918. The occupation had two stages: the initial phase in
accordance with the Armistice gave way in 1920 to a more formal arrangement under the Treaty of
Sèvres.[12] Ultimately, the Treaty of Lausanne, signed on 24 July 1923, led to the end of the
occupation. The last troops of the Allies departed from the city on 4 October 1923, and the first
troops of the Ankara government, commanded by Şükrü Naili Pasha (3rd Corps), entered the city
with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the Liberation Day of Istanbul
(Turkish: İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu, Ottoman Turkish: ‫ )استانبولڭ قورتولوشی‬and is commemorated every
year on its anniversary.[13]
1918 saw the first time the city had changed hands since the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Along
with the occupation of Smyrna, it spurred the establishment of the Turkish National Movement,
leading to the Turkish War of Independence.[14]

Background[edit]

Greek aviators at the San Stefano airfield, after

the Mudros armistice
The Ottomans estimated that the population of Istanbul in 1920 was between 800,000 and
1,200,000 inhabitants, having collected population statistics from the various religious bodies. The
uncertainty in the figure reflects the uncounted population of war refugees and disagreements as to
the boundaries of the city. Half or less were Muslim, the rest being largely Greek
Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, and Jewish; there had been a substantial Western European
population before the war.[15]
Legality of the occupation[edit]
The Armistice of Mudros of 30 October 1918, which ended Ottoman involvement in World War I,
mentions the occupation of Bosporus fort and Dardanelles fort. That day, Admiral Somerset Gough-
Calthorpe, the British signatory, stated the Triple Entente's position that they had no intention to
dismantle the government or to place it under military occupation by "occupying Constantinople".
[16]
This verbal promise and lack of mention of the occupation of Istanbul in the armistice proper did
not change the realities for the Ottoman Empire.[citation needed] Calthorpe put the British position as "No
kind of favour whatsoever to any Turk and to hold out no hope for them". [17] The Ottoman side
returned to the capital with a personal letter from Calthorpe, intended for Rauf Orbay, in which he
promised on behalf of the British government that only British and French troops would be used in
the occupation of the Straits fortifications. A small number of Ottoman troops could be allowed to
stay on in the occupied areas as a symbol of sovereignty.[18]

Military administration[edit]

The armored cruiser Averof of the Greek Navy in

the Bosphorus, 1919 British occupation forces at the

port of Karaköy, in front of the coastal tram line. The art nouveau style building in the
background is the Turkish Maritime Lines (Türkiye Denizcilik İşletmeleri) headquarters. [19]

The Allies began to occupy Ottoman territory soon after the Armistice of Mudros; 13 days later, a
French brigade entered Istanbul, on 12 November 1918. The first British troops entered the city on
the following day. Early in December 1918, Allied troops occupied sections of Istanbul and set up an
Allied military administration.
On 7 February 1919, an Italian battalion with 19 officers and 740 soldiers landed at the Galata pier;
one day later they were joined by 283 Carabinieri, commanded by Colonel Balduino Caprini. The
Carabinieri assumed police tasks.[3]
On 10 February 1919, the commission divided the city into three zones for police matters: Stambul
(the old city) was assigned to the French, Pera-Galata to the British and Kadıköy and Scutari to the
Italians.[3] High Commissioner Admiral Somerset Gough-Calthorpe was assigned as the military
adviser to Istanbul.
Establishing authority[edit]
Further information: Malta exiles
The British rounded up a number of members of the old establishment and interned them in Malta,
awaiting their trial for alleged crimes during World War I. Calthorpe included only Turkish members
of the Government of Ahmet Tevfik Pasha and the military/political personalities. He wanted to send
a message that a military occupation was in effect and failure to comply would end with harsh
punishment. His position was not shared with other partners. The French Government's response to
those accused was "distinction to disadvantage of Muslim-Turks while Bulgarian, Austrian and
German offenders were as yet neither arrested nor molested".[20] However, the government and the
Sultan understood the message. In February 1919, Allies were informed that the Ottoman Empire
was in compliance with its full apparatus to the occupation forces. Any source of conflict
(including Armenian questions) would be investigated by a commission, to which neutral
governments could attach two legal superintendents.[20] Calthorpe's correspondence to Foreign Office
was "The action undertaken for the arrests was very satisfactory, and has, I think, intimidated
the Committee of Union and Progress of Constantinople".[21]
Ottoman courts-martial[edit]
Main article: Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20

Constantinople, 23 May 1919: Protests against

the Occupation of Smyrna by the Kingdom of Greece
Calthorpe's message was fully noted by the Sultan. There was an eastern tradition of presenting
gifts to the authority during serious conflicts, sometimes "falling of heads". There was no higher goal
than preserving the integrity of the Ottoman Institution. If Calthorpe's anger could be calmed down
by foisting the blame on a few members of the Committee of Union and Progress, the Ottoman
Empire could thereby receive more lenient treatment at the Paris peace conference.[22] The trials
began in Istanbul on 28 April 1919. The prosecution presented "forty-two authenticated documents
substantiating the charges therein, many bearing dates, identification of senders of the cipher
telegrams and letters, and names of recipients."[23] On 22 July, the court-martial found several
defendants guilty of subverting constitutionalism by force and found them responsible for massacres.
[24]
During its whole existence from 28 April 1919, to 29 March 1920, Ottoman trials were performed
very poorly and with increasing inefficiency, as presumed guilty people were already intended as a
sacrifice to save the Empire. However, as an occupation authority, the historical rightfulness of the
Allies was at stake. Calthorpe wrote to London: "proving to be a farce and injurious to our own
prestige and to that of the Turkish government".[25] The Allies considered Ottoman trials as a travesty
of justice, so Ottoman justice had to be replaced with Western justice by moving the trials to Malta
as "International" trials. The "International" trials declined to use any evidence developed by the
Ottoman tribunals. When the International trials were staged, Calthorpe was replaced by John de
Robeck. De Robeck said regarding the trials "that its findings cannot be held of any account at
all."[26] All of the Malta exiles were released.
A new movement[edit]
Further information: Turkish national movement
 Allied occupation troops marching along the Grande Rue de
Péra
Calthorpe was alarmed when he learned that the victor of Gallipoli had become the inspector
general for Anatolia, and Mustafa Kemal's behavior during this period did nothing to improve
matters. Calthorpe urged that Kemal be recalled. Thanks to friends and sympathizers of Kemal in
government circles, a 'compromise' was developed whereby the power of the inspector general was
curbed, at least on paper. "Inspector General" became a title that had no power to command. On 23
June 1919, Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe began to understand Kemal and his role in
the establishment of the Turkish national movement. He sent a report about Kemal to the Foreign
Office. His remarks were downplayed by George Kidson of the Eastern Department. Captain Hurst
(British army) in Samsun warned Calthorpe one more time about the Turkish national movement, but
his units were replaced with a brigade of Gurkhas.

M1 in Istanbul.
Calthorpe was assigned to another position on 5 August 1919, and left Istanbul.

Death of a Turkish soldier during a British raid against Mızıka

watchhouse at Şehzadebaşı on 16 March 1920
John de Robeck, August 1919–1922[edit]
See also: John de Robeck
In August 1919 John de Robeck replaced Calthorpe with the title of "Commander-in-Chief,
Mediterranean, and High Commissioner at Constantinople". He was responsible for activities
regarding Russia and Turkey (Ottoman Empire-Turkish national movement).
De Robeck was very worried by the defiant mood of the Ottoman parliament. When 1920 arrived, he
was concerned by reports that substantial stocks of arms were reaching Turkish National Movement,
some from French and Italian sources. In one of his letters to London, he asked: "Against whom
would these sources be employed?"
In London, the Conference of London (February 1920) took place; it featured discussions about
settling the treaty terms to be offered in San Remo. De Robeck reminded participants that Anatolia
was moving into a resistance stage. There were arguments of "National Pact" (Misak-ı Milli)
circulating, and if these were solidified, it would take a longer time and more resources to handle the
case (partitioning of the Ottoman Empire). He tried to persuade the leaders to take quick action to
control the Sultan and pressure the rebels from both directions. This request posed awkward
problems at the highest level: promises for national sovereignty were on the table and the United
States was fast withdrawing into isolation.

Treaty of Sèvres[edit]
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Ottoman parliament of 1920[edit]

See also: Khilafat Movement and Conference of London (February 1920)
The newly elected Ottoman parliament in Istanbul did not recognize the occupation; they developed
a National Pact (Misak-ı Milli). They adopted six principles, which called for self-determination, the
security of Istanbul, the opening of the Straits, and the abolition of the capitulations. While in Istanbul
self-determination and protection of the Ottoman Empire were voiced, the Khilafat
Movement in India tried to influence the British government to protect the caliphate of the Ottoman
Empire, and though it was primarily a Muslim religious movement, the Khilafat struggle was
becoming a part of the wider Indian independence movement. Both these two movements (Misak-ı
Milli and the Khilafat Movement) shared a lot of notions on the ideological level, and during
the Conference of London (February 1920) Allies concentrated on these issues.
The Ottoman Empire lost World War I, but Misak-ı Milli with the local Khilafat Movement was still
fighting the Allies.
Solidification of the partitioning, February 1920[edit]
See also: Conference of London (February 1920) and San Remo conference
The plans for partitioning of the Ottoman Empire needed to be solidified. At the Conference of
London on 4 March 1920, the Triple Entente decided to implement its previous (secret) agreements
and form what would be the Treaty of Sèvres. In doing so, all forms of resistance originating from the
Ottoman Empire (rebellions, Sultan, etc.) were to be dismantled. The Allies' military forces in Istanbul
ordered that the necessary actions be taken; while the political side increased efforts to put the
Treaty of Sèvres into writing.
Negotiations for the Treaty of Sèvres presumed a Greek, French-Armenian, Wilsonian Armenia and
Italian occupation region being Christian administrations, as opposed to the prior Muslim
administration of the Ottoman Empire. Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire perceived this plan as
depriving them of sovereignty. British intelligence registered the Turkish national movement as a
movement of the Muslim citizens of Anatolia. The Muslim unrest in Anatolia brought two arguments
to the British government regarding the new establishments: the Muslim administration was not safe
for Christians; that the Treaty of Sèvres was the only way that Christians could be safe. Enforcing
the Treaty of Sèvres could not happen without repressing Kemal's national movement.
The British claimed that if the Allies could not control Anatolia at that time, they could at least control
Istanbul. The plan was to begin with methodically dismantling organizations within Istanbul and to
then slowly advance into Anatolia. The British foreign department was asked to devise a plan to
ease this path, and developed the same plan that they had used during the Arab revolt. The aim was
to break down authority by separating the Sultan from his government, and working
different millets against each other, such as the Christian millet against the Muslim millet, to use the
minimum force to achieve their goals.

Military occupation of Istanbul[edit]

Dissolution of the parliament, March 1920[edit]
See also: Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)

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The Telegram House was occupied by Allied troops on 14 March. On the morning of 16 March,
British forces, including the British Indian Army, began to occupy the key buildings and arrest
nationalist politicians and journalists. A British Indian Army operation, the Şehzadebaşı raid, resulted
in 5 Ottoman Army soldiers from the 10th Infantry Division being killed when troops raided their
barracks. On 18 March, the Ottoman parliamentarians came together in a last meeting. A black cloth
covered the pulpit of the Parliament as reminder of its absent members and the Parliament sent a
letter of protest to the Allies, declaring the arrest of five of its members as unacceptable. [27]

French Senegalese Tirailleurs during Military

Drill on Sultanahmet Square in 1919
The dissolution of the Ottoman left the Sultan as the sole legal authority of the Empire; in line with
British aims to isolate the Sultan. Beginning with 18 March, the Sultan followed the directives of the
British Foreign Secretary, saying, "There would be no one left to blame for what will be coming
soon"; the Sultan revealed his own version of the declaration of dissolution on 11 April, after
approximately 150 Turkish politicians accused of war crimes were interned in Malta. The dissolution
of the parliament was followed by the raid and closing of the journal Yeni Gün (New Day). Yeni
Gün was owned by Yunus Nadi Abalıoğlu, an influential journalist, and was the main media organ in
Turkey publishing Turkish news to global audiences.[citation needed]
Official declaration, 16 March 1920[edit]
On 16 March 1920, the third day of hostilities, the Allied forces declared the occupation:
In an effort to prevent the spread of Turkish nationalism, General Sir George Milne and an Allied
force occupied İstanbul.

 The Allies gave assurances that they had no intention of taking over the government.
  The Allies sought to keep the Straits open and to protect the Armenians.
 The Allies persuaded the Ottoman government to denounce the Turkish nationalists and
sent many into exile.
 The Sultan had established a Damad Ferid government.[28]

Enforcing the peace treaty[edit]

Early pressure on the insurgency, April–June 1920[edit]
The British argued that the insurgency of the Turkish National Movement should be suppressed by
local forces in Anatolia, with the help of British training and arms. In response to a formal British
request, the Istanbul government appointed an Anatolian general inspector Süleyman Şefik
Pasha and a new Security Army, Kuva-i Inzibatiye, to enforce central government control with British
support. The British also supported local guerrilla groups in the Anatolian heartland (officially called
'independent armies') with money and arms.
Despite this, combined attempts by British and local forces proved unsuccessful in quelling the
nationalist movement. A clash outside İzmit quickly escalated, with British forces opening fire on the
nationalists, and bombing them from the air. Although the attack forced the nationalists to retreat, the
weakness of the British position had been made apparent. The British commander, General George
Milne, asked for reinforcements of at least twenty-seven divisions. The British were unwilling to
agree to a deployment of this size, as it could have political consequences that were beyond the
British government's capacity to handle.[citation needed]
Some Circassian exiles, who had emigrated to the Empire after the Circassian genocide may have
supported the British—notably Ahmet Anzavur, who led the Kuva-i Inzibatiye and ravaged the
countryside.[29] Others, such as Hüseyin Rauf Orbay, who was of Ubykh descent, remained loyal
to Kemal, and was exiled to Malta in 1920 when British forces took the city.[30][self-published source] The British
were quick to accept the fact that the nationalistic movement, which had solidified during World War
I, could not be faced without the deployment of reliable and well-trained forces. On 25 June
the Kuva-i Inzibatiye was dismantled on the advice of the British, as they were becoming a liability.
[citation needed]

Presentation of the treaty to the Sultan, June 1920[edit]

See also: Treaty of Sèvres
The treaty terms were presented to the Sultan in the middle of June. The treaty was harsher than the
Ottomans expected, because of the military pressure placed on the insurgency from April to June
1920, the Allies did not expect that there would be any serious opposition. [citation needed]
Concurrently, Mustafa Kemal had set up a rival government in Ankara, the Grand National Assembly
of Turkey. On 18 October, the government of Damat Ferid Pasha was replaced by a provisional
ministry under Ahmed Tevfik Pasha as Grand Vizier, who announced the intention to convoke the
Senate for the purpose of ratification of the Treaty, provided that national unity be achieved. This
required seeking cooperation with Kemal. The latter expressed disdain to the Treaty and started a
military assault. As a result, the Turkish Government issued a note to the Entente that the ratification
of the Treaty was impossible at that time.[31]

End of the occupation[edit]

 Turkish troops enter Istanbul on 6 October 1923.
The success of the Turkish National Movement against the French and Greeks was followed by their
forces threatening the Allied forces at Chanak. The British decided to resist any attempt to penetrate
the neutral zone of the Straits. Kemal was persuaded by the French to order his forces to avoid any
incident at Chanak. Nevertheless, the Chanak Crisis nearly resulted in hostilities, these being
avoided on 11 October 1922, when the Armistice of Mudanya was signed, bringing the Turkish War
of Independence to an end.[32][33] The handling of this crisis caused the collapse of David Lloyd
George's Ministry on 19 October 1922.[34]
Following the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922), the Grand National Assembly of
Turkey in Ankara abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and the last Ottoman
Sultan, Mehmed VI, was expelled from the city. Leaving aboard the British warship HMS Malaya on
17 November 1922, he went into exile and died in Sanremo, Italy, on 16 May 1926.
Negotiations for a new peace treaty with Turkey began at the Conference of Lausanne on 20
November 1922 and reopened after a break on 23 April 1923. This led to the signing of the Treaty of
Lausanne on 24 July 1923. Under the terms of the treaty, Allied forces started evacuating Istanbul
on 23 August 1923 and completed the task on 4 October 1923 – British, Italian, and French troops
departing pari passu.[13][better source needed]

Turkish troops enter Kadıköy on 6 October 1923.

Turkish forces of the Ankara government, commanded by Şükrü Naili Pasha (3rd Corps), entered
the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the Liberation Day of
Istanbul (Turkish: İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu) and is commemorated every year on its anniversary.[13] On
29 October 1923, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the establishment of the Turkish
Republic, with Ankara as its capital. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became the Republic's first President.