COMPLEX NUMBERS

Tutorial Manual

MUT
Maths 1
1. Table of Contents
1 Learning Outcomes............................................................................................................. 2
2 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2
2.1 The imaginary number 𝒋 .............................................................................................. 2
2.2 Powers of 𝒋 .................................................................................................................. 3
3 Complex Numbers .............................................................................................................. 4
3.1 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers ......................................................... 4
3.2 Multiplication of Complex Numbers .......................................................................... 5
3.3 Division of Complex Numbers ................................................................................... 5
3.4 Equality of Complex Numbers .................................................................................... 6
3.5 Graphical representation of Complex Numbers .......................................................... 8
4 REFLECTION AND COMMENT ..................................................................................... 9
5 Polar and Exponential Form of a Complex Number .......................................................... 9
5.1 Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers in Polar Form ........................... 13
5.2 De Moivre’s Theorem ............................................................................................... 13
6 REFLECTION AND COMMENT ................................................................................... 14
7 Tutorial Questions ............................................................................................................ 14

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1 Learning Outcomes
After completing this handout, you should be able to

 Recognise j as standing for √−1 and be able to reduce powers of j to ±j or ±1

 Recognise that all complex numbers are in the form (real part) + j (imaginary
part)
 Add, subtract and multiply complex numbers
 Find the complex conjugate of a complex number
 Divide complex numbers
 State the conditions for the equality of two complex numbers
 Represent a complex number in the rectangular form on an Argand diagram.
 Convert a complex number from rectangular form to polar and exponential
form
 State Moivre’s theorem
 Use De Moivre’s theorem to raise a complex number to a given power
 Use De Moivre’s theorem to find all the roots of a complex number

2 Introduction
The quadratic formula to solve the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is given by

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

It is clear from the above equation that the nature of the roots we obtained is
governed by the term under the root sign, that is, 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐.

We have the following three types of roots depending on this value

1) 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0: In this case, the quadratic equation has two distinct real roots
2) 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0: In this case, the quadratic equation has a repeated root which is
𝑏
equal to − 2𝑎.
3) 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0: This is the case we haven’t looked at so far. The negative term
results in the square root of a negative, the solution of which does not exist in
the real number system. Graphically, the quadratic curve does not cross the x-
axis hence the roots are called imaginary roots. These roots are defined in what
is called the complex number system and this is going to form the subject of
our study in this content area.

2.1 The imaginary number 𝒋

To deal with the problem that 𝑥 2 = −1 has no solution in the real number system,
mathematicians of the eighteenth century invented the “imaginary” number

𝑖 = √−1

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This number 𝑖 has lots of uses in engineering. However, the letter 𝑖 is reserved for
current in electrical engineering and so an alternative letter was adopted by the
engineers to counter the conflicting symbol and thus the symbol 𝑗 = √−1 has since
been adopted.
Just like its mathematics counterpart 𝑖, the symbol 𝑗 represents the imaginary number
√−1. And so from this moment on, we will drop the symbol 𝑖 and will be using the
symbol 𝑗 for the remainder of the course and beyond.

2.2 Powers of 𝒋
Since 𝑗 = √−1, let’s consider some powers of j.

𝑗 = √−1
𝑗 2 = −1
𝑗 3 = 𝑗 2 ∙ 𝑗 = −𝑗
𝑗4 = 𝑗2 ∙ 𝑗2 = 1
𝑗 5 = 𝑗 4𝑗 = 𝑗
𝑗 6 = 𝑗 4 𝑗 2 = −1
𝑗 7 = 𝑗 4 𝑗 3 = 𝑗 3 = −𝑗
𝑗 8 = 𝑗 4𝑗 4 = 1
⋯
A definite pattern is emerging here on the powers of 𝑗. Everytime a factor of 𝑗 4 occurs,
it can be replaced by 1 and the same holds for all powers of 𝑗 which are multiples of
4. By knowing only the first four powers of 𝑗, we can easily simplify any power of j

Example
Simplify the following powers of 𝑗
a) 𝑗 17
b) 𝑗 38
c) 𝑗 63
d) 𝑗 75
e) 𝑗 2014

Solution
a) 𝑗 17 = 𝑗 16 𝑗 = (𝑗 4 )4 𝑗 = 𝑗
b) 𝑗 38 = 𝑗 36 𝑗 2 = −1
c) 𝑗 63 = 𝑗 60 𝑗 3 = −𝑗
d) 𝑗 75 = 𝑗 72 𝑗 3 = −𝑗

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 e) 𝑗 2014 = (𝑗 4 )503 𝑗 2 = 𝑗 2 = −1

Simplify the following powers of 𝑗.

a) 𝑗 42
b) 𝑗 11
c) 𝑗 112
d) 𝑗 45

Since 𝑗 = √−1, it then becomes possible to evaluate the roots of negative numbers.
For example, √−64 = √−1 × √64 = 𝑗8

√−16 = √−1 × √16 = 𝑗4

𝑗8 and 𝑗4 are called purely imaginary numbers. Just like the case for real numbers,
you can add or subtract two imaginary numbers.

For example
𝑗8 + 𝑗4 = 𝑗12
𝑗8 − 𝑗4 = 𝑗4

3 Complex Numbers
When a real number is added to an imaginary number, we get what is called a
complex number. More formally, a complex number is in the form
𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦

Where 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 is called the real part of the complex number and;

𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 is called the imaginary part of the complex number.

Complex numbers have many applications in engineering. To be able to use them,

we need to know and understand how to carry out the usual arithmetic operations.

3.1 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

The addition and subtraction of complex numbers is very straight forward, you add the
real part to the real part and the imaginary part to the imaginary part. This is
synonymous with the concept of collecting like terms in algebraic arithmetic
operations.

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For example, if 𝑧1 = −3 + 𝑗8 and 𝑧2 = 6 + 𝑗3, we have

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (−3 + 𝑗8) + (6 + 𝑗3) = −3 + 6 + 𝑗8 + 𝑗3 = 3 + 𝑗11

𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = (6 + 𝑗3) − (−3 + 𝑗8) = 6 + 𝑗3 + 3 − 𝑗8 = 6 + 3 + 𝑗3 − 𝑗8 = 9 − 𝑗5

3.2 Multiplication of Complex Numbers

The multiplication of complex numbers is distributive across the product. Remember
from elementary algebra that
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑑) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑

The same approach is the same with dealing with complex numbers. However, one
always has to remember that 𝑗 2 = −1 in the simplification after clearing out the
brackets. For example, if 𝑧1 = −3 + 𝑗8 and 𝑧2 = 6 + 𝑗3, we have

𝑧1 𝑧2 = (−3 + 𝑗8)(6 + 𝑗3) = −18 − 𝑗9 + 𝑗18 + 𝑗 2 24 = −18 + 𝑗9 − 24 = −42 + 𝑗9

Example
Let 𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑗3 and 𝑧2 = 2 − 𝑗3. Evaluate 𝑧1 𝑧2 .

Solution
𝑧1 𝑧2 = (2 + 𝑗3)(2 − 𝑗3) = 4 − 𝑗6 + 𝑗6 − 𝑗 2 9 = 4 + 9 = 13

There is no mistake here and the result 13 is not a complex number but a real number.
The result is true for all products complex numbers such that 𝑧1 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥 −
𝑗𝑦. This brings us to an important definition which we will use extensively in the next
section on the division of complex, that is, the complex conjugate.
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 be a complex number. The complex conjugate is defined as the
complex number 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑗𝑦.

3.3 Division of Complex Numbers

Just as complex numbers can be added, subtracted and multiplied, complex numbers
can be divided as well. However, to rationalise the complex number into the form 𝑥 +

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𝑗𝑦, there’s need to multiply the numerator and the denominator by the complex
conjugate of the denominator.

Example
z1
If 𝑧1 = −3 + 𝑗8 and 𝑧2 = 6 + 𝑗3, evaluate giving the final answer in the form
z2
z  x  jy.

Solution
𝑧1 −3 + 𝑗8 (−3 + 𝑗8) (6 − 𝑗3) −18 + 𝑗9 + 𝑗48 − 𝑗 2 24
= = =
𝑧2 6 + 𝑗3 (6 + 𝑗3) (6 − 𝑗3) 45
−18 + 𝑗57 + 24 6 + 𝑗57 6 57 2 19
= = = +𝑗 = +𝑗
45 45 45 45 9 15
NB: Remember to express fractions in their lowest terms.

3.4 Equality of Complex Numbers

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 and 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑 be two complex numbers. We say two complex two
complex numbers are equal if and only if
𝑎 = 𝑐 (Real part)

and
𝑏 = 𝑑 (Imaginary Part)

With this in mind, this means we are able to compare any two complex numbers so
long they have been simplified and expressed in terms of 𝑗.

Example
a) Simplify
𝑗4 − 𝑗3
(7 − 𝑗)(2 + 𝑗) −
3+𝑗
b) Solve for x and y if
(1 + 𝑗3)2
= 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑗 5
2𝑗 2 + 𝑗

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Solution

a)
𝑗4 − 𝑗3
(7 − 𝑗)(2 + 𝑗) −
3+𝑗
1+𝑗
= 14 + 𝑗7 − 𝑗2 − 𝑗 2 −
3+𝑗
(1 + 𝑗) (3 − 𝑗)
= 15 + 𝑗5 −
(3 + 𝑗) (3 − 𝑗)
3 − 𝑗 + 𝑗3 − 𝑗 2
= 15 + 𝑗5 −
10
4 + 𝑗2
= 15 + 𝑗5 −
10
150 + 𝑗50 − 4 − 𝑗2
=
10
146 + 𝑗48
=
10
146 48
= +𝑗
10 10
73 24
= +𝑗
5 5

COMMENT: With practice, you can compress some of the steps depending on your
understanding of the material.

b)
(1 + 𝑗3)2
= 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑗 5
2𝑗 2 + 𝑗

COMMENT: To solve this question, you first simplify both sides into the form 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑗
and compare the real and the imaginary parts. This will result in a pair of simultaneous
equations in x and y.
1 + 𝑗6 + 𝑗 2 9
⇒ = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
−2 + 𝑗
−8 + 𝑗6
⇒ = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
−2 + 𝑗
(−8 + 𝑗6) (−2 − 𝑗)
⇒ = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
(−2 + 𝑗) (−2 − 𝑗)

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 22 − 𝑗4
⇒ = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
5
⇒ 22 − 𝑗4 = 5𝑥 + 𝑗5𝑦

Equating the real parts, we have

22 = 5𝑥
22
⇒ 𝑥=
5

Equating the imaginary parts, we have

4
−4 = 5𝑦 ⇒ − = 𝑦
5
4
∴ 𝑦=−
5

3.5 Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

The graphical representation of complex numbers is the same as that for the normal
Cartesian plane. The x-axis represents the real part while the y-axis represents the
imaginary part of the complex number. When a Cartesian plane is used in this way to
represent complex numbers, it becomes known as the Complex plane or the Argand
diagram. From a geometric or graphical point of view, the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
is identical to the point (𝑥; 𝑦) in the plane. An example of an Argand diagram with some
complex numbers is shown below.

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The plotting of complex numbers on the Argand diagram leads us to the next topic
where we will be introducing alternative forms of the complex numbers like the polar
form and the exponential which make use of the argument and the modulus of the
complex number.

4 REFLECTION AND COMMENT

A complex number is a number z of the form
z  x  jy
where x and y are real numbers and j  1. x is called the real part and y is called
the imaginary part of a complex number. The form z  x  jy is called the rectangular
form of a complex number. Two complex numbers are equal if and only if the real part
and the imaginary part of the two respective complex numbers are equal.
Even though complex numbers in themselves are imaginary, they have many useful
properties in engineering and mathematics. You can add, subtract, multiply and divide
two complex numbers.
Complex numbers can be easily plotted on a graph, called an Argand diagram in the
case of a complex number. The coordinate for a complex number z  x  jy are simply
 x, y  .

In the next unit, we go on to explore other alternative forms of complex numbers like
the polar form and exponential form; as well as the application of De Moivre’s theorem
to determine the roots of a complex number.

5 Polar and Exponential Form of a Complex Number

Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 be a complex number. This way of expressing a complex number is
called the Cartesian or rectangular form. We now want to explore other ways of
expressing complex numbers but we start by defining some important terms first.
The modulus of the complex number is defined as

|𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

and the argument of the complex number 𝜃 is defined as

𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥

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The quadrant in which θ falls comes from the Argand diagram; as there are always
two possible values, whether tan is positive or negative. Since you have already
covered the general solution, you already know that the value of θ is not unique as the
value repeats every 2𝜋 radians or 360°. However, the value of the argument we are
looking for should be in the range −𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 or −180° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°.
NB: Degrees are commonly used in this course but solutions in radians are
permissible. You should choose whether you want to use degrees or radians
and stick to your desired units, unless specifically instructed.

|𝑧| is commonly called 𝑟, hence from your knowledge of trigonometry,

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
But we already know that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦, therefore
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 𝑟 sin 𝜃
∴ 𝒛 = 𝒓(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)

The above form of z is what is called, the Polar Form of a complex number.

Example
Express each of the following in polar form

a) −1 + 𝑗√3
b) 3 − 𝑗3

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Solution
a) To get the modulus, we say
2
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √(−1)2 + (√3) = √1 + 3 = 2

NB: The value of r is always positive; ignore the negative value of the square
root. You will be penalised if you give the final answer for the modulus as 𝒓 =
±𝟐.
To get the modulus, we say

√3
θ = tan−1 ( ) = −60° or 120°
−1

Because x is negative and y is positive, θ is clearly in the 2nd quadrant. You can go
back to the trigonometry solution to read on the quadrants. So the argument in this
case is
𝜃 = 120°
Hence

−1 + 𝑗√3 = 2(cos 120° + 𝑗 sin 120°)

b) I will keep explanations to the minimum in this one since all the points have
been highlighted in (a).
𝑟 = √(3)2 + (−3)2 = √9 + 9 = √18 = √2 × 9 = 3√2

NB: Do not use a calculator; leave the answer in surd form unless specifically
instructed otherwise in the question.
−3
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = −45°
3

Hence

3 − 𝑗3 = 3√2(cos(−45°) + 𝑗 sin(−45°))
There is yet another form of expressing a complex that you will need to be familiar with
in this course and that is the exponential form. The exponential form is based on the
power series of the exponential function 𝑒 𝑥 but the details are beyond the scope of
this course.

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We have already seen how to get the modulus and argument of a complex number to
convert the complex number to polar form. Using these two values, we have
𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃) = 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝜽

𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 is thus called the exponential form of a complex number.

For example, from the previous examples, we have

a)
−1 + 𝑗√3 = 2(cos 120° + 𝑗 sin 120°) = 2𝑒 𝑗120°

b)
3 − 𝑗3 = 3√2(cos(−45°) + 𝑗 sin(−45°)) = 3√2𝑒 −𝑗45°

The process of converting back from polar/exponential form to rectangular form is

rather straight forward. You start by evaluating the cosine and sine functions then
multiply throughout by the modulus as indicated in the example below.

Example

Express 2√2[cos(−45°) + 𝑗 sin(−45°)] in rectangular form.

Solution
1 1
cos(−45°) = , sin(−45°) = −
√2 √2

Hence
1 1
2√2[cos(−45°) + 𝑗 sin(−45°)] = 2√2 ( −𝑗 ) = 2 − 𝑗2
√2 √2

NB: I strongly advise the use of a Casio scientific calculator for these types of
questions as the Casio scientific calculator will give you solutions is surd form.

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5.1 Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers in Polar Form
Let 𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃2 ).
We have the following important results for the product and quotient using the polar
form of complex numbers

𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑗 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )] = 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃1 +𝜃2 )

𝑧1 𝑟1 𝑟1
= [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑗 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )] = 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
𝑧2 𝑟2 𝑟2

Clearly, the polar form makes it so easy and is very convenient when multiplying or
dividing two (or more) complex numbers.

5.2 De Moivre’s Theorem

De Moivre’s Theorem states that;
If 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃), then 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos(𝑛𝜃) + 𝑗 sin(𝑛𝜃)] for every rational number
n.

Example
If 𝑧 = 3 − 𝑗3, evaluate 𝑧 4 leaving your answer in rectangular form.

Solution

𝑟√32 + (−3)2 = √18 = 3√2

−3
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = −45°
3
∴ 𝑧 = 3 − 𝑗3 = 3√2[cos(−45°) + 𝑗 sin(−45°)]
By De Moivre’s Theorem,
4
⇒ 𝑧 4 = (3√2) [cos(−45° × 4) + 𝑗 sin(−45° × 4)]

⇒ 𝑧 4 = 324[cos(−360°) + 𝑗 sin(−360°)]
⇒ 𝑧4 = 324(cos 0° + 𝑗 sin 0°)
⇒ 𝑧 4 = 324 = 324 + 𝑗0

NB: Remember, even if the final answer is a real number, you have to express it in
complex rectangular form as indicated above.

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6 REFLECTION AND COMMENT
In the unit, we have seen that there are 3 equivalent ways of expressing a complex
number:
 rectangular form: z  x  jy;
 polar form: z  r  cos   j sin   , where r  x 2  y 2 and tan   y ; and
x
 the exponential form: j
z  re . The exponential form is closely related to
the polar form.
The polar form and the exponential form of a complex number make it more convenient
to perform multiplication and division between two complex numbers:

z1 r1e j1 r1 j 1 2 

  e ;
z2 r2 e j2 r2
z1  z2  re
1
j1
 r2e j2  r1r2e j1 2 
To evaluate all the nth roots of a complex number z, we use De Moivre’s theorem to
say

1 1     2 k     2 k  
z n  r n  cos    j sin   ;
  n   n 
k  0,1, , n  1

7 Tutorial Questions
Question 1
If z1  3  j 2, z2  2  j 4, z3  6  j, and z4  j3, evaluate the following

1.1) z2  z3

1.2)  z1  z2 

z1
1.3)
z3

1.4)  z3   z3 

1.5)  z  z 
4 1

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 Question 2
23j
Simplify  2  j   j 4  3 j5  
1 3 j

Question 3
Solve for x and y if:

3.1) x  2  3 j3   y 3  j 7   j5

3.2)  2  j  5  jy   x  j 7

 x  2    y  2  j  4  j3
2
3.3)

1  3 j 
2

3.4)  x  yj 5
2j  j
2

Question 4
Find the modulus r and argument  of:

4.1)  3 j 3

7 j
4.2)
3  j4

Question 5
Express each of the following in the polar and exponential form:

5.1) 1 j 3

5.2) 2  j 2

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5.3) 2

5.4)  j5

5.5) 3  j 4

Question 6

If z1   3  j and z2  4  j 4, express each complex number in polar form. Hence

z1
find  z1  z2  and in polar and exponential form.
z2

Question 7
Determine the cube roots of 8 in polar form.

Question 8
Use De Moivre’s theorem to evaluate the following and leave your answers in
rectangular form

1  j 
13
8.1)

 4  j3
3
8.2)

 2  j 2 
6
8.3)

REFERENCES

Anton, H. and C. Rorres (2014). Elementary Linear Algebra. USA, Wiley.

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